What does
**(double star) and*(star) do for parameters
They allow for functions to be defined to accept and for users to pass any number of arguments, positional (*) and keyword (**).
*args allows for any number of optional positional arguments (parameters), which will be assigned to a tuple named args.
**kwargs allows for any number of optional keyword arguments (parameters), which will be in a dict named kwargs.
You can (and should) choose any appropriate name, but if the intention is for the arguments to be of non-specific semantics, args and kwargs are standard names.
You can also use *args and **kwargs to pass in parameters from lists (or any iterable) and dicts (or any mapping), respectively.
The function recieving the parameters does not have to know that they are being expanded.
For example, Python 2's xrange does not explicitly expect *args, but since it takes 3 integers as arguments:
>>> x = xrange(3) # create our *args - an iterable of 3 integers
>>> xrange(*x) # expand here
xrange(0, 2, 2)
As another example, we can use dict expansion in str.format:
>>> foo = 'FOO'
>>> bar = 'BAR'
>>> 'this is foo, {foo} and bar, {bar}'.format(**locals())
'this is foo, FOO and bar, BAR'
You can have keyword only arguments after the *args - for example, here, kwarg2 must be given as a keyword argument - not positionally:
def foo(arg, kwarg=None, *args, kwarg2=None, **kwargs):
return arg, kwarg, args, kwarg2, kwargs
Usage:
>>> foo(1,2,3,4,5,kwarg2='kwarg2', bar='bar', baz='baz')
(1, 2, (3, 4, 5), 'kwarg2', {'bar': 'bar', 'baz': 'baz'})
Also, * can be used by itself to indicate that keyword only arguments follow, without allowing for unlimited positional arguments.
def foo(arg, kwarg=None, *, kwarg2=None, **kwargs):
return arg, kwarg, kwarg2, kwargs
Here, kwarg2 again must be an explicitly named, keyword argument:
>>> foo(1,2,kwarg2='kwarg2', foo='foo', bar='bar')
(1, 2, 'kwarg2', {'foo': 'foo', 'bar': 'bar'})
And we can no longer accept unlimited positional arguments because we don't have *args*:
>>> foo(1,2,3,4,5, kwarg2='kwarg2', foo='foo', bar='bar')
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: foo() takes from 1 to 2 positional arguments
but 5 positional arguments (and 1 keyword-only argument) were given
Again, more simply, here we require kwarg to be given by name, not positionally:
def bar(*, kwarg=None):
return kwarg
In this example, we see that if we try to pass kwarg positionally, we get an error:
>>> bar('kwarg')
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: bar() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given
We must explicitly pass the kwarg parameter as a keyword argument.
>>> bar(kwarg='kwarg')
'kwarg'
*args (typically said "star-args") and **kwargs (stars can be implied by saying "kwargs", but be explicit with "double-star kwargs") are common idioms of Python for using the * and ** notation. These specific variable names aren't required (e.g. you could use *foos and **bars), but a departure from convention is likely to enrage your fellow Python coders.
We typically use these when we don't know what our function is going to receive or how many arguments we may be passing, and sometimes even when naming every variable separately would get very messy and redundant (but this is a case where usually explicit is better than implicit).
Example 1
The following function describes how they can be used, and demonstrates behavior. Note the named b argument will be consumed by the second positional argument before :
def foo(a, b=10, *args, **kwargs):
'''
this function takes required argument a, not required keyword argument b
and any number of unknown positional arguments and keyword arguments after
'''
print('a is a required argument, and its value is {0}'.format(a))
print('b not required, its default value is 10, actual value: {0}'.format(b))
# we can inspect the unknown arguments we were passed:
# - args:
print('args is of type {0} and length {1}'.format(type(args), len(args)))
for arg in args:
print('unknown arg: {0}'.format(arg))
# - kwargs:
print('kwargs is of type {0} and length {1}'.format(type(kwargs),
len(kwargs)))
for kw, arg in kwargs.items():
print('unknown kwarg - kw: {0}, arg: {1}'.format(kw, arg))
# But we don't have to know anything about them
# to pass them to other functions.
print('Args or kwargs can be passed without knowing what they are.')
# max can take two or more positional args: max(a, b, c...)
print('e.g. max(a, b, *args) \n{0}'.format(
max(a, b, *args)))
kweg = 'dict({0})'.format( # named args same as unknown kwargs
', '.join('{k}={v}'.format(k=k, v=v)
for k, v in sorted(kwargs.items())))
print('e.g. dict(**kwargs) (same as {kweg}) returns: \n{0}'.format(
dict(**kwargs), kweg=kweg))
We can check the online help for the function's signature, with help(foo), which tells us
foo(a, b=10, *args, **kwargs)
Let's call this function with foo(1, 2, 3, 4, e=5, f=6, g=7)
which prints:
a is a required argument, and its value is 1
b not required, its default value is 10, actual value: 2
args is of type <type 'tuple'> and length 2
unknown arg: 3
unknown arg: 4
kwargs is of type <type 'dict'> and length 3
unknown kwarg - kw: e, arg: 5
unknown kwarg - kw: g, arg: 7
unknown kwarg - kw: f, arg: 6
Args or kwargs can be passed without knowing what they are.
e.g. max(a, b, *args)
4
e.g. dict(**kwargs) (same as dict(e=5, f=6, g=7)) returns:
{'e': 5, 'g': 7, 'f': 6}
Example 2
We can also call it using another function, into which we just provide a:
def bar(a):
b, c, d, e, f = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
# dumping every local variable into foo as a keyword argument
# by expanding the locals dict:
foo(**locals())
bar(100) prints:
a is a required argument, and its value is 100
b not required, its default value is 10, actual value: 2
args is of type <type 'tuple'> and length 0
kwargs is of type <type 'dict'> and length 4
unknown kwarg - kw: c, arg: 3
unknown kwarg - kw: e, arg: 5
unknown kwarg - kw: d, arg: 4
unknown kwarg - kw: f, arg: 6
Args or kwargs can be passed without knowing what they are.
e.g. max(a, b, *args)
100
e.g. dict(**kwargs) (same as dict(c=3, d=4, e=5, f=6)) returns:
{'c': 3, 'e': 5, 'd': 4, 'f': 6}
Example 3: practical usage in decorators
OK, so maybe we're not seeing the utility yet. So imagine you have several functions with redundant code before and/or after the differentiating code. The following named functions are just pseudo-code for illustrative purposes.
def foo(a, b, c, d=0, e=100):
# imagine this is much more code than a simple function call
preprocess()
differentiating_process_foo(a,b,c,d,e)
# imagine this is much more code than a simple function call
postprocess()
def bar(a, b, c=None, d=0, e=100, f=None):
preprocess()
differentiating_process_bar(a,b,c,d,e,f)
postprocess()
def baz(a, b, c, d, e, f):
... and so on
We might be able to handle this differently, but we can certainly extract the redundancy with a decorator, and so our below example demonstrates how *args and **kwargs can be very useful:
def decorator(function):
'''function to wrap other functions with a pre- and postprocess'''
@functools.wraps(function) # applies module, name, and docstring to wrapper
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
# again, imagine this is complicated, but we only write it once!
preprocess()
function(*args, **kwargs)
postprocess()
return wrapper
And now every wrapped function can be written much more succinctly, as we've factored out the redundancy:
@decorator
def foo(a, b, c, d=0, e=100):
differentiating_process_foo(a,b,c,d,e)
@decorator
def bar(a, b, c=None, d=0, e=100, f=None):
differentiating_process_bar(a,b,c,d,e,f)
@decorator
def baz(a, b, c=None, d=0, e=100, f=None, g=None):
differentiating_process_baz(a,b,c,d,e,f, g)
@decorator
def quux(a, b, c=None, d=0, e=100, f=None, g=None, h=None):
differentiating_process_quux(a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h)
And by factoring out our code, which *args and **kwargs allows us to do, we reduce lines of code, improve readability and maintainability, and have sole canonical locations for the logic in our program. If we need to change any part of this structure, we have one place in which to make each change.