What are the basic rules and idioms for operator overloading

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Note  The answers were given in a specific order  but since many users sort answers according to votes  rather than the time they were given  here s an index of the answers in the order in which they make the most sense   The General Syntax of operator overloading in C   The Three Basic Rules of Operator Overloading in C   The Decision between Member and Non-member Common operators to overload Assignment Operator Input and Output Operators Function call operator Comparison operators Arithmetic Operators Array Subscripting Operators for Pointer-like Types Conversion Operators Overloading new and delete   Note  This is meant to be an entry to Stack Overflow s C   FAQ  If you want to critique the idea of providing an FAQ in this form  then the posting on meta that started all this would be the place to do that  Answers to that question are monitored in the C   chatroom  where the FAQ idea started in the first place  so your answer is very likely to get read by those who came up with the idea

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Why can t operator lt  lt  function for streaming objects to std  cout or to a file be a member function   Let s say you have   struct Foo      int a     double b      std  ostream amp  operator lt  lt  std  ostream amp  out  const            return out  lt  lt  a  lt  lt       lt  lt  b            Given that  you cannot use   Foo f    10  20 0   std  cout  lt  lt  f    Since operator lt  lt  is overloaded as a member function of Foo  the LHS of the operator must be a Foo object  Which means  you will be required to use   Foo f    10  20 0   f  lt  lt  std  cout   which is very non-intuitive   If you define it as a non-member function   struct Foo      int a     double b      std  ostream amp  operator lt  lt  std  ostream amp  out  Foo const amp  f       return out  lt  lt  f a  lt  lt       lt  lt  f b      You will be able to use   Foo f    10  20 0   std  cout  lt  lt  f    which is very intuitive

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The Decision between Member and Non-member The binary operators    assignment       array subscription   - gt   member access   as well as the n-ary     function call  operator  must always be implemented as member functions  because the syntax of the language requires them to  Other operators can be implemented either as members or as non-members  Some of them  however  usually have to be implemented as non-member functions  because their left operand cannot be modified by you  The most prominent of these are the input and output operators  lt  lt  and  gt  gt   whose left operands are stream classes from the standard library which you cannot change  For all operators where you have to choose to either implement them as a member function or a non-member function  use the following rules of thumb to decide   If it is a unary operator  implement it as a member function  If a binary operator treats both operands equally  it leaves them unchanged   implement this operator as a non-member function  If a binary operator does not treat both of its operands equally  usually it will change its left operand   it might be useful to make it a member function of its left operand   s type  if it has to access the operand s private parts   Of course  as with all rules of thumb  there are exceptions  If you have a type enum Month  Jan  Feb       Nov  Dec   and you want to overload the increment and decrement operators for it  you cannot do this as a member functions  since in C    enum types cannot have member functions  So you have to overload it as a free function  And operator lt    for a class template nested within a class template is much easier to write and read when done as a member function inline in the class definition  But these are indeed rare exceptions   However  if you make an exception  do not forget the issue of const-ness for the operand that  for member functions  becomes the implicit this argument  If the operator as a non-member function would take its left-most argument as a const reference  the same operator as a member function needs to have a const at the end to make  this a const reference    Continue to Common operators to overload

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Common operators to overload  Most of the work in overloading operators is boiler-plate code  That is little wonder  since operators are merely syntactic sugar  their actual work could be done by  and often is forwarded to  plain functions  But it is important that you get this boiler-plate code right  If you fail  either your operator   s code won   t compile or your users    code won   t compile or your users    code will behave surprisingly   Assignment Operator  There s a lot to be said about assignment  However  most of it has already been said in GMan s famous Copy-And-Swap FAQ  so I ll skip most of it here  only listing the perfect assignment operator for reference   X amp  X  operator  X rhs      swap rhs     return  this      Bitshift Operators  used for Stream I O   The bitshift operators  lt  lt  and  gt  gt   although still used in hardware interfacing for the bit-manipulation functions they inherit from C  have become more prevalent as overloaded stream input and output operators in most applications   For guidance overloading as bit-manipulation operators  see the section below on Binary Arithmetic Operators   For implementing your own custom format and parsing logic when your object is used with iostreams  continue   The stream operators  among the most commonly overloaded operators  are binary infix operators for which the syntax specifies no restriction on whether they should be members or non-members  Since they change their left argument  they alter the stream   s state   they should  according to the rules of thumb  be implemented as members of their left operand   s type  However  their left operands are streams from the standard library  and while most of the stream output and input operators defined by the standard library are indeed defined as members of the stream classes  when you implement output and input operations for your own types  you cannot change the standard library   s stream types  That   s why you need to implement these operators for your own types as non-member functions  The canonical forms of the two are these   std  ostream amp  operator lt  lt  std  ostream amp  os  const T amp  obj         write obj to stream    return os     std  istream amp  operator gt  gt  std  istream amp  is  T amp  obj         read obj from stream    if     no valid object of T found in stream          is setstate std  ios  failbit      return is      When implementing operator gt  gt   manually setting the stream   s state is only necessary when the reading itself succeeded  but the result is not what would be expected   Function call operator  The function call operator  used to create function objects  also known as functors  must be defined as a member function  so it always has the implicit this argument of member functions  Other than this  it can be overloaded to take any number of additional arguments  including zero   Here s an example of the syntax   class foo   public         Overloaded call operator     int operator   const std  string amp  y                              Usage   foo f  int a   f  hello      Throughout the C   standard library  function objects are always copied  Your own function objects should therefore be cheap to copy  If a function object absolutely needs to use data which is expensive to copy  it is better to store that data elsewhere and have the function object refer to it   Comparison operators  The binary infix comparison operators should  according to the rules of thumb  be implemented as non-member functions1  The unary prefix negation   should  according to the same rules  be implemented as a member function   but it is usually not a good idea to overload it    The standard library   s algorithms  e g  std  sort    and types  e g  std  map  will always only expect operator lt  to be present  However  the users of your type will expect all the other operators to be present  too  so if you define operator lt   be sure to follow the third fundamental rule of operator overloading and also define all the other boolean comparison operators  The canonical way to implement them is this   inline bool operator   const X amp  lhs  const X amp  rhs      do actual comparison      inline bool operator   const X amp  lhs  const X amp  rhs  return  operator   lhs rhs    inline bool operator lt   const X amp  lhs  const X amp  rhs      do actual comparison      inline bool operator gt   const X amp  lhs  const X amp  rhs  return  operator lt   rhs lhs    inline bool operator lt   const X amp  lhs  const X amp  rhs  return  operator gt   lhs rhs    inline bool operator gt   const X amp  lhs  const X amp  rhs  return  operator lt   lhs rhs      The important thing to note here is that only two of these operators actually do anything  the others are just forwarding their arguments to either of these two to do the actual work   The syntax for overloading the remaining binary boolean operators       amp  amp   follows the rules of the comparison operators  However  it is very unlikely that you would find a reasonable use case for these2   1 As with all rules of thumb  sometimes there might be reasons to break this one  too  If so  do not forget that the left-hand operand of the binary comparison operators  which for member functions will be  this  needs to be const  too  So a comparison operator implemented as a member function would have to have this signature   bool operator lt  const X amp  rhs  const      do actual comparison with  this         Note the const at the end    2 It should be noted that the built-in version of    and  amp  amp  use shortcut semantics  While the user defined ones  because they are syntactic sugar for method calls  do not use shortcut semantics  User will expect these operators to have shortcut semantics  and their code may depend on it  Therefore it is highly advised NEVER to define them   Arithmetic Operators  Unary arithmetic operators  The unary increment and decrement operators come in both prefix and postfix flavor  To tell one from the other  the postfix variants take an additional dummy int argument  If you overload increment or decrement  be sure to always implement both prefix and postfix versions  Here is the canonical implementation of increment  decrement follows the same rules   class X     X amp  operator                do actual increment     return  this        X operator   int          X tmp  this       operator          return tmp           Note that the postfix variant is implemented in terms of prefix  Also note that postfix does an extra copy 2  Overloading unary minus and plus is not very common and probably best avoided  If needed  they should probably be overloaded as member functions    2 Also note that the postfix variant does more work and is therefore less efficient to use than the prefix variant  This is a good reason to generally prefer prefix increment over postfix increment  While compilers can usually optimize away the additional work of postfix increment for built-in types  they might not be able to do the same for user-defined types  which could be something as innocently looking as a list iterator   Once you got used to do i    it becomes very hard to remember to do   i instead when i is not of a built-in type  plus you d have to change code when changing a type   so it is better to make a habit of always using prefix increment  unless postfix is explicitly needed   Binary arithmetic operators  For the binary arithmetic operators  do not forget to obey the third basic rule operator overloading  If you provide    also provide     if you provide -  do not omit -   etc  Andrew Koenig is said to have been the first to observe that the compound assignment operators can be used as a base for their non-compound counterparts  That is  operator   is implemented in terms of     - is implemented in terms of -  etc   According to our rules of thumb    and its companions should be non-members  while their compound assignment counterparts     etc    changing their left argument  should be a member  Here is the exemplary code for    and    the other binary arithmetic operators should be implemented in the same way   class X     X amp  operator   const X amp  rhs             actual addition of rhs to  this     return  this         inline X operator  X lhs  const X amp  rhs      lhs    rhs    return lhs      operator   returns its result per reference  while operator  returns a copy of its result  Of course  returning a reference is usually more efficient than returning a copy  but in the case of operator   there is no way around the copying  When you write a   b  you expect the result to be a new value  which is why operator  has to return a new value 3 Also note that operator  takes its left operand by copy rather than by const reference  The reason for this is the same as the reason giving for operator  taking its argument per copy   The bit manipulation operators    amp       lt  lt   gt  gt  should be implemented in the same way as the arithmetic operators  However   except for overloading  lt  lt  and  gt  gt  for output and input  there are very few reasonable use cases for overloading these   3 Again  the lesson to be taken from this is that a    b is  in general  more efficient than a   b and should be preferred if possible   Array Subscripting  The array subscript operator is a binary operator which must be implemented as a class member  It is used for container-like types that allow access to their data elements by a key  The canonical form of providing these is this   class X           value type amp  operator   index type idx     const value type amp  operator   index type idx  const                Unless you do not want users of your class to be able to change data elements returned by operator    in which case you can omit the non-const variant   you should always provide both variants of the operator   If value type is known to refer to a built-in type  the const variant of the operator should better return a copy instead of a const reference   class X     value type amp  operator   index type idx     value type  operator   index type idx  const                Operators for Pointer-like Types  For defining your own iterators or smart pointers  you have to overload the unary prefix dereference operator   and the binary infix pointer member access operator - gt    class my ptr           value type amp  operator       const value type amp  operator    const          value type  operator- gt       const value type  operator- gt    const       Note that these  too  will almost always need both a const and a non-const version  For the - gt  operator  if value type is of class  or struct or union  type  another operator- gt    is called recursively  until an operator- gt    returns a value of non-class type   The unary address-of operator should never be overloaded   For operator- gt     see this question  It s rarely used and thus rarely ever overloaded  In fact  even iterators do not overload it     Continue to Conversion Operators

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Conversion Operators  also known as User Defined Conversions   In C   you can create conversion operators  operators that allow the compiler to convert between your types and other defined types   There are two types of conversion operators  implicit and explicit ones   Implicit Conversion Operators  C  98 C  03 and C  11   An implicit conversion operator allows the compiler to implicitly convert  like the conversion between int and long  the value of a user-defined type to some other type   The following is a simple class with an implicit conversion operator   class my string   public    operator const char    const  return data       This is the conversion operator private    const char  data        Implicit conversion operators  like one-argument constructors  are user-defined conversions  Compilers will grant one user-defined conversion when trying to match a call to an overloaded function   void f const char     my string str  f str      same as f  str operator const char        At first this seems very helpful  but the problem with this is that the implicit conversion even kicks in when it isn   t expected to  In the following code  void f const char   will be called because my string   is not an lvalue  so the first does not match   void f my string amp    void f const char     f my string       Beginners easily get this wrong and even experienced C   programmers are sometimes surprised because the compiler picks an overload they didn   t suspect   These problems can be mitigated by explicit conversion operators   Explicit Conversion Operators  C  11   Unlike implicit conversion operators  explicit conversion operators will never kick in when you don t expect them to   The following is a simple class with an explicit conversion operator   class my string   public    explicit operator const char    const  return data    private    const char  data        Notice the explicit   Now when you try to execute the unexpected code from the implicit conversion operators  you get a compiler error    prog cpp  In function    int main       prog cpp 15 18  error  no matching function for call to    f my string     prog cpp 15 18  note  candidates are  prog cpp 11 10  note  void f my string   prog cpp 11 10  note    no known conversion for argument 1 from    my string    to    my string     prog cpp 12 10  note  void f const char   prog cpp 12 10  note    no known conversion for argument 1 from    my string    to    const char       To invoke the explicit cast operator  you have to use static cast  a C-style cast  or a constructor style cast   i e  T value        However  there is one exception to this   The compiler is allowed to implicitly convert to bool   In addition  the compiler is not allowed to do another implicit conversion after it converts to bool  a compiler is allowed to do 2 implicit conversions at a time  but only 1 user-defined conversion at max      Because the compiler will not cast  past  bool  explicit conversion operators now remove the need for the Safe Bool idiom    For example  smart pointers before C  11 used the Safe Bool idiom to prevent conversions to integral types   In C  11  the smart pointers use an explicit operator instead because the compiler is not allowed to implicitly convert to an integral type after it explicitly converted a type to bool   Continue to Overloading new and delete

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The Three Basic Rules of Operator Overloading in C   When it comes to operator overloading in C    there are three basic rules you should follow  As with all such rules  there are indeed exceptions  Sometimes people have deviated from them and the outcome was not bad code  but such positive deviations are few and far between  At the very least  99 out of 100 such deviations I have seen were unjustified  However  it might just as well have been 999 out of 1000  So you   d better stick to the following rules   Whenever the meaning of an operator is not obviously clear and undisputed  it should not be overloaded  Instead  provide a function with a well-chosen name  Basically  the first and foremost rule for overloading operators  at its very heart  says  Don   t do it  That might seem strange  because there is a lot to be known about operator overloading and so a lot of articles  book chapters  and other texts deal with all this  But despite this seemingly obvious evidence  there are only a surprisingly few cases where operator overloading is appropriate  The reason is that actually it is hard to understand the semantics behind the application of an operator unless the use of the operator in the application domain is well known and undisputed  Contrary to popular belief  this is hardly ever the case   Always stick to the operator   s well-known semantics  C   poses no limitations on the semantics of overloaded operators  Your compiler will happily accept code that implements the binary   operator to subtract from its right operand  However  the users of such an operator would never suspect the expression a   b to subtract a from b  Of course  this supposes that the semantics of the operator in the application domain is undisputed   Always provide all out of a set of related operations  Operators are related to each other and to other operations  If your type supports a   b  users will expect to be able to call a    b  too  If it supports prefix increment   a  they will expect a   to work as well  If they can check whether a  lt  b  they will most certainly expect to also to be able to check whether a  gt  b  If they can copy-construct your type  they expect assignment to work as well     Continue to The Decision between Member and Non-member

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Overloading new and delete Note  This only deals with the syntax of overloading new and delete  not with the implementation of such overloaded operators  I think that the semantics of overloading new and delete deserve their own FAQ  within the topic of operator overloading I can never do it justice  Basics In C    when you write a new expression like new T arg  two things happen when this expression is evaluated  First operator new is invoked to obtain raw memory  and then the appropriate constructor of T is invoked to turn this raw memory into a valid object  Likewise  when you delete an object  first its destructor is called  and then the memory is returned to operator delete  C   allows you to tune both of these operations  memory management and the construction destruction of the object at the allocated memory  The latter is done by writing constructors and destructors for a class  Fine-tuning memory management is done by writing your own operator new and operator delete  The first of the basic rules of operator overloading     don   t do it     applies especially to overloading new and delete  Almost the only reasons to overload these operators are performance problems and memory constraints  and in many cases  other actions  like changes to the algorithms used  will provide a much higher cost gain ratio than attempting to tweak memory management  The C   standard library comes with a set of predefined new and delete operators  The most important ones are these  void  operator new std  size t  throw std  bad alloc    void  operator delete void   throw     void  operator new   std  size t  throw std  bad alloc    void  operator delete   void   throw      The first two allocate deallocate memory for an object  the latter two for an array of objects  If you provide your own versions of these  they will not overload  but replace the ones from the standard library  If you overload operator new  you should always also overload the matching operator delete  even if you never intend to call it  The reason is that  if a constructor throws during the evaluation of a new expression  the run-time system will return the memory to the operator delete matching the operator new that was called to allocate the memory to create the object in  If you do not provide a matching operator delete  the default one is called  which is almost always wrong  If you overload new and delete  you should consider overloading the array variants  too  Placement new C   allows new and delete operators to take additional arguments  So-called placement new allows you to create an object at a certain address which is passed to  class X                char buffer  sizeof X     void f        X  p   new buffer  X                       p- gt  X       call destructor      The standard library comes with the appropriate overloads of the new and delete operators for this  void  operator new std  size t void  p  throw std  bad alloc    void  operator delete void  p void   throw     void  operator new   std  size t void  p  throw std  bad alloc    void  operator delete   void  p void   throw      Note that  in the example code for placement new given above  operator delete is never called  unless the constructor of X throws an exception  You can also overload new and delete with other arguments  As with the additional argument for placement new  these arguments are also listed within parentheses after the keyword new  Merely for historical reasons  such variants are often also called placement new  even if their arguments are not for placing an object at a specific address  Class-specific new and delete Most commonly you will want to fine-tune memory management because measurement has shown that instances of a specific class  or of a group of related classes  are created and destroyed often and that the default memory management of the run-time system  tuned for general performance  deals inefficiently in this specific case  To improve this  you can overload new and delete for a specific class  class my class      public                   void  operator new        void  operator delete void  std  size t       void  operator new   size t       void  operator delete   void  std  size t                    Overloaded thus  new and delete behave like static member functions  For objects of my class  the std  size t argument will always be sizeof my class   However  these operators are also called for dynamically allocated objects of derived classes  in which case it might be greater than that  Global new and delete To overload the global new and delete  simply replace the pre-defined operators of the standard library with our own  However  this rarely ever needs to be done

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The General Syntax of operator overloading in C   You cannot change the meaning of operators for built-in types in C    operators can only be overloaded for user-defined types1  That is  at least one of the operands has to be of a user-defined type  As with other overloaded functions  operators can be overloaded for a certain set of parameters only once  Not all operators can be overloaded in C    Among the operators that cannot be overloaded are       sizeof typeid    and the only ternary operator in C       Among the operators that can be overloaded in C   are these   arithmetic operators    -       and    -            all binary infix     -  unary prefix      --  unary prefix and postfix  bit manipulation   amp       lt  lt   gt  gt  and  amp          lt  lt    gt  gt    all binary infix      unary prefix  boolean algebra         lt   gt   lt    gt       amp  amp   all binary infix      unary prefix  memory management  new new   delete delete   implicit conversion operators miscellany       - gt  - gt       all binary infix      amp   all unary prefix      function call  n-ary infix   However  the fact that you can overload all of these does not mean you should do so  See the basic rules of operator overloading  In C    operators are overloaded in the form of functions with special names  As with other functions  overloaded operators can generally be implemented either as a member function of their left operand s type or as non-member functions  Whether you are free to choose or bound to use either one depends on several criteria 2 A unary operator  3  applied to an object x  is invoked either as operator  x  or as x operator     A binary infix operator    applied to the objects x and y  is called either as operator  x y  or as x operator  y  4 Operators that are implemented as non-member functions are sometimes friend of their operand   s type  1 The term    user-defined    might be slightly misleading  C   makes the distinction between built-in types and user-defined types  To the former belong for example int  char  and double  to the latter belong all struct  class  union  and enum types  including those from the standard library  even though they are not  as such  defined by users  2 This is covered in a later part of this FAQ  3 The   is not a valid operator in C   which is why I use it as a placeholder  4 The only ternary operator in C   cannot be overloaded and the only n-ary operator must always be implemented as a member function   Continue to The Three Basic Rules of Operator Overloading in C

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