What is the difference between a closure and a lambda

Question

Could someone explain  I understand the basic concepts behind them but I often see them used interchangeably and I get confused    And now that we re here  how do they differ from a regular function

User · Answer

Not all closures are lambdas and not all lambdas are closures. Both are functions, but not necessarily in the manner we're used to knowing.

A lambda is essentially a function that is defined inline rather than the standard method of declaring functions. Lambdas can frequently be passed around as objects.

A closure is a function that encloses its surrounding state by referencing fields external to its body. The enclosed state remains across invocations of the closure.

In an object-oriented language, closures are normally provided through objects. However, some OO languages (e.g. C#) implement special functionality that is closer to the definition of closures provided by purely functional languages (such as lisp) that do not have objects to enclose state.

What's interesting is that the introduction of Lambdas and Closures in C# brings functional programming closer to mainstream usage.

User · Answer

When most people think of functions  they think of named functions   function foo     return  This string is returned from the  foo  function       These are called by name  of course   foo      returns the string above   With lambda expressions  you can have anonymous functions     foo   lambda    return  This is returned from a function without a name      With the above example  you can call the lambda through the variable it was assigned to   foo      More useful than assigning anonymous functions to variables  however  are passing them to or from higher-order functions  i e   functions that accept return other functions  In a lot of these cases  naming a function is unecessary   function filter list  predicate       filteredList          for-each   x in list  if  predicate x   filteredList add x      return filteredList        filter for even numbers filter  0 1 2 3 4 5 6   lambda x   return  x mod 2    0        A closure may be a named or anonymous function  but is known as such when it  closes over  variables in the scope where the function is defined  i e   the closure will still refer to the environment with any outer variables that are used in the closure itself  Here s a named closure    x   0   function incrementX     x   x   1    incrementX       x now equals 1   That doesn t seem like much but what if this was all in another function and you passed incrementX to an external function   function foo       x   0      function incrementX          x   x   1        return x            return incrementX       y   foo       y   closure of incrementX over foo x y      returns 1  y x    0   1  y      returns 2  y x    1   1    This is how you get stateful objects in functional programming  Since naming  incrementX  isn t needed  you can use a lambda in this case   function foo       x   0      return lambda                 x   x   1               return x

User · Answer

It s as simple as this  lambda is a language construct  i e  simply syntax for anonymous functions  a closure is a technique to implement it -- or any first-class functions  for that matter  named or anonymous   More precisely  a closure is how a first-class function is represented at runtime  as a pair of its  code  and an environment  closing  over all the non-local variables used in that code  This way  those variables are still accessible even when the outer scopes where they originate have already been exited   Unfortunately  there are many languages out there that do not support functions as first-class values  or only support them in crippled form  So people often use the term  closure  to distinguish  the real thing

User · Answer

Not all closures are lambdas and not all lambdas are closures. Both are functions, but not necessarily in the manner we're used to knowing.

A lambda is essentially a function that is defined inline rather than the standard method of declaring functions. Lambdas can frequently be passed around as objects.

A closure is a function that encloses its surrounding state by referencing fields external to its body. The enclosed state remains across invocations of the closure.

In an object-oriented language, closures are normally provided through objects. However, some OO languages (e.g. C#) implement special functionality that is closer to the definition of closures provided by purely functional languages (such as lisp) that do not have objects to enclose state.

What's interesting is that the introduction of Lambdas and Closures in C# brings functional programming closer to mainstream usage.

User · Answer

A Lambda expression is just an anonymous function   in plain java  for example  you can write it like this   Function lt Person  Job gt  mapPersonToJob   new Function lt Person  Job gt          public Job apply Person person            Job job   new Job person getPersonId    person getJobDescription             return job             where the class Function is just built in java code   Now you can call mapPersonToJob apply person  somewhere to use it   thats just one example   Thats a lambda before there was syntax for it   Lambdas a short cut for this    Closure   a Lambda becomes a closure when it can access the variables outside of this scope   i guess you can say its magic  it magically can wrap around the environment it was created in and use the variables outside of its scope outer scope   so to be clear  a closure means a lambda can access its OUTER SCOPE    in Kotlin  a lambda can always access its closure  the variables that are in its outer scope

User · Answer

A Lambda expression is just an anonymous function   in plain java  for example  you can write it like this   Function lt Person  Job gt  mapPersonToJob   new Function lt Person  Job gt          public Job apply Person person            Job job   new Job person getPersonId    person getJobDescription             return job             where the class Function is just built in java code   Now you can call mapPersonToJob apply person  somewhere to use it   thats just one example   Thats a lambda before there was syntax for it   Lambdas a short cut for this    Closure   a Lambda becomes a closure when it can access the variables outside of this scope   i guess you can say its magic  it magically can wrap around the environment it was created in and use the variables outside of its scope outer scope   so to be clear  a closure means a lambda can access its OUTER SCOPE    in Kotlin  a lambda can always access its closure  the variables that are in its outer scope

User · Answer

Concept is same as described above  but if you are from PHP background  this further explain using PHP code     input   array 1  2  3  4  5    output   array filter  input  function   v    return  v  gt  2        function   v    return  v   2    is the lambda function definition  We can even store it in a variable  so it can be reusable    max   function   v    return  v  gt  2       input   array 1  2  3  4  5    output   array filter  input   max     Now  what if you want to change the maximum number allowed in the filtered array  You would have to write another lambda function or create a closure  PHP 5 3     max comp   function   max      return function   v  use   max    return  v  gt   max          input   array 1  2  3  4  5    output   array filter  input   max comp 2      A closure is a function that is evaluated in its own environment  which has one or more bound variables that can be accessed when the function is called  They come from the functional programming world  where there are a number of concepts in play  Closures are like lambda functions  but smarter in the sense that they have the ability to interact with variables from the outside environment of where the closure is defined   Here is a simpler example of PHP closure    string    Hello World     closure   function   use   string    echo  string       closure      Nicely explained in this article

User · Answer

Not all closures are lambdas and not all lambdas are closures. Both are functions, but not necessarily in the manner we're used to knowing.

A lambda is essentially a function that is defined inline rather than the standard method of declaring functions. Lambdas can frequently be passed around as objects.

A closure is a function that encloses its surrounding state by referencing fields external to its body. The enclosed state remains across invocations of the closure.

In an object-oriented language, closures are normally provided through objects. However, some OO languages (e.g. C#) implement special functionality that is closer to the definition of closures provided by purely functional languages (such as lisp) that do not have objects to enclose state.

What's interesting is that the introduction of Lambdas and Closures in C# brings functional programming closer to mainstream usage.

User · Answer

It s as simple as this  lambda is a language construct  i e  simply syntax for anonymous functions  a closure is a technique to implement it -- or any first-class functions  for that matter  named or anonymous   More precisely  a closure is how a first-class function is represented at runtime  as a pair of its  code  and an environment  closing  over all the non-local variables used in that code  This way  those variables are still accessible even when the outer scopes where they originate have already been exited   Unfortunately  there are many languages out there that do not support functions as first-class values  or only support them in crippled form  So people often use the term  closure  to distinguish  the real thing

User · Answer

From the view of programming languages  they are completely two different things   Basically for a Turing complete language we only needs very limited elements  e g  abstraction  application and reduction  Abstraction and application provides the way you can build up lamdba expression  and reduction dertermines the meaning of the lambda expression   Lambda provides a way you can abstract the computation process out   for example  to compute the sum of two numbers  a process which takes two parameters x  y and returns x y can be abstracted out  In scheme  you can write it as   lambda  x y     x y     You can rename the parameters  but the task that it completes doesn t change   In almost all of programming languages  you can give the lambda expression a name  which are named functions  But there is no much difference  they can be conceptually considered as just syntax sugar   OK  now imagine how this can be implemented  Whenever we apply the lambda expression to some expressions  e g     lambda  x y     x y   2 3    We can simply substitute the parameters with the expression to be evaluated  This model is already very powerful  But this model doesn t enable us to change the values of symbols  e g  We can t mimic the change of status  Thus we need a more complex model   To make it short  whenever we want to calculate the meaning of the lambda expression  we put the pair of symbol and the corresponding value into an environment or table   Then the rest    x y  is evaluated by looking up the corresponding symbols in the table  Now if we provide some primitives to operate on the environment directly  we can model the changes of status   With this background  check this function    lambda  x y     x y z     We know that when we evaluate the lambda expression  x y will be bound in a new table  But how and where can we look z up  Actually z is called a free variable  There must be an outer  an environment which contains z  Otherwise the meaning of the expression can t be determined by only binding x and y  To make this clear  you can write something as follows in scheme     lambda  z   lambda  x y     x y z    1    So z would be bound to 1 in an outer table  We still get a function which accepts two parameters but the real meaning of it also depends on the outer environment  In other words the outer environment closes on the free variables  With the help of set   we  can make the function stateful  i e  it s not a function in the sense of maths  What it returns not only depends on the input  but z as well   This is something you already know very well  a method of objects almost always relies on the state of objects  That s why some people say  closures are poor man s objects    But we could also consider objects as poor man s closures since we really like first class functions   I use scheme to illustrate the ideas due to that scheme is one of the earliest language which has real closures  All of the materials here are much better presented in SICP chapter 3   To sum up  lambda and closure are really different concepts  A lambda is a function  A closure is a pair of lambda and the corresponding environment which closes the lambda

User · Answer

Concept is same as described above  but if you are from PHP background  this further explain using PHP code     input   array 1  2  3  4  5    output   array filter  input  function   v    return  v  gt  2        function   v    return  v   2    is the lambda function definition  We can even store it in a variable  so it can be reusable    max   function   v    return  v  gt  2       input   array 1  2  3  4  5    output   array filter  input   max     Now  what if you want to change the maximum number allowed in the filtered array  You would have to write another lambda function or create a closure  PHP 5 3     max comp   function   max      return function   v  use   max    return  v  gt   max          input   array 1  2  3  4  5    output   array filter  input   max comp 2      A closure is a function that is evaluated in its own environment  which has one or more bound variables that can be accessed when the function is called  They come from the functional programming world  where there are a number of concepts in play  Closures are like lambda functions  but smarter in the sense that they have the ability to interact with variables from the outside environment of where the closure is defined   Here is a simpler example of PHP closure    string    Hello World     closure   function   use   string    echo  string       closure      Nicely explained in this article

User · Answer

It depends on whether a function uses external variable or not to perform operation    External variables -  variables defined outside the scope of a function    Lambda expressions are stateless because It depends on parameters  internal variables or constants to perform operations   Function lt Integer Integer gt  lambda   t - gt        int n   2     return t   n     Closures hold state because it uses external variables  i e  variable defined outside the scope of the function body   along with parameters and constants to perform operations   int n   2  Function lt Integer Integer gt  closure   t - gt        return t   n       When Java creates closure  it keeps the variable n with the function so it can be referenced when passed to other functions or used anywhere

User · Answer

There is a lot of confusion around lambdas and closures  even in the answers to this StackOverflow question here  Instead of asking random programmers who learned about closures from practice with certain programming languages or other clueless programmers  take a journey to the source  where it all began   And since lambdas and closures come from Lambda Calculus invented by Alonzo Church back in the  30s before first electronic computers even existed  this is the source I m talking about   Lambda Calculus is the simplest programming language in the world  The only things you can do in it     APPLICATION  Applying one expression to another  denoted f x  Think of it as a function call  where f is the function and x is its only parameter  ABSTRACTION  Binds a symbol occurring in an expression to mark that this symbol is just a  slot   a blank box waiting to be filled with value  a  variable  as it were  It is done by prepending a Greek letter    lambda   then the symbolic name  e g  x   then a dot   before the expression  This then converts the expression into a function expecting one parameter For example   x x 2 takes the expression x 2 and tells that the symbol x in this expression is a bound variable     it can be substituted with a value you supply as a parameter  Note that the function defined this way is anonymous     it doesn t have a name  so you can t refer to it yet  but you can immediately call it  remember application   by supplying it the parameter it is waiting for  like this    x x 2  7  Then the expression  in this case a literal value  7 is substituted as x in the subexpression x 2 of the applied lambda  so you get 7 2  which then reduces to 9 by common arithmetics rules    So we ve solved one of the mysteries  lambda is the anonymous function from the example above   x x 2   In different programming languages  the syntax for functional abstraction  lambda  may differ  For example  in JavaScript it looks like this   function x    return x 2      and you can immediately apply it to some parameter like this    function x    return x 2     7    or you can store this anonymous function  lambda  into some variable   var f   function x    return x 2      which effectively gives it a name f  allowing you to refer to it and call it multiple times later  e g    alert   f 7    f 10           should print 21 in the message box   But you didn t have to name it  You could call it immediately   alert   function x    return x 2     7          should print 9 in the message box   In LISP  lambdas are made like this    lambda  x     x 2     and you can call such a lambda by applying it immediately to a parameter       lambda  x     x 2    7       OK  now it s time to solve the other mystery  what is a closure  In order to do that  let s talk about symbols  variables  in lambda expressions   As I said  what the lambda abstraction does is binding a symbol in its subexpression  so that it becomes a substitutible parameter  Such a symbol is called bound  But what if there are other symbols in the expression  For example   x x y 2  In this expression  the symbol x is bound by the lambda abstraction  x  preceding it  But the other symbol  y  is not bound     it is free  We don t know what it is and where it comes from  so we don t know what it means and what value it represents  and therefore we cannot evaluate that expression until we figure out what y means   In fact  the same goes with the other two symbols  2 and    It s just that we are so familiar with these two symbols that we usually forget that the computer doesn t know them and we need to tell it what they mean by defining them somewhere  e g  in a library or the language itself   You can think of the free symbols as defined somewhere else  outside the expression  in its  surrounding context   which is called its environment  The environment might be a bigger expression that this expression is a part of  as Qui-Gon Jinn said   There s always a bigger fish        or in some library  or in the language itself  as a primitive    This lets us divide lambda expressions into two categories    CLOSED expressions  every symbol that occurs in these expressions is bound by some lambda abstraction  In other words  they are self-contained  they don t require any surrounding context to be evaluated  They are also called combinators  OPEN expressions  some symbols in these expressions are not bound     that is  some of the symbols occurring in them are free and they require some external information  and thus they cannot be evaluated until you supply the definitions of these symbols    You can CLOSE an open lambda expression by supplying the environment  which defines all these free symbols by binding them to some values  which may be numbers  strings  anonymous functions aka lambdas  whatever       And here comes the closure part  The closure of a lambda expression is this particular set of symbols defined in the outer context  environment  that give values to the free symbols in this expression  making them non-free anymore  It turns an open lambda expression  which still contains some  undefined  free symbols  into a closed one  which doesn t have any free symbols anymore   For example  if you have the following lambda expression   x x y 2  the symbol x is bound  while the symbol y is free  therefore the expression is open and cannot be evaluated unless you say what y means  and the same with   and 2  which are also free   But suppose that you also have an environment like this      y  3      built-in addition   2   built-in number   q  42  w  5      This environment supplies definitions for all the  undefined   free  symbols from our lambda expression  y     2   and several extra symbols  q  w   The symbols that we need to be defined are this subset of the environment      y  3      built-in addition   2   built-in number       and this is precisely the closure of our lambda expression     In other words  it closes an open lambda expression  This is where the name closure came from in the first place  and this is why so many people s answers in this thread are not quite correct  P  So why are they mistaken  Why do so many of them say that closures are some data structures in memory  or some features of the languages they use  or why do they confuse closures with lambdas   P  Well  the corporate marketoids of Sun Oracle  Microsoft  Google etc  are to blame  because that s what they called these constructs in their languages  Java  C   Go etc    They often call  closures  what are supposed to be just lambdas  Or they call  closures  a particular technique they used to implement lexical scoping  that is  the fact that a function can access the variables that were defined in its outer scope at the time of its definition  They often say that the function  encloses  these variables  that is  captures them into some data structure to save them from being destroyed after the outer function finishes executing  But this is just made-up post factum  folklore etymology  and marketing  which only makes things more confusing  because every language vendor uses its own terminology   And it s even worse because of the fact that there s always a bit of truth in what they say  which does not allow you to easily dismiss it as false  P Let me explain   If you want to implement a language that uses lambdas as first-class citizens  you need to allow them to use symbols defined in their surrounding context  that is  to use free variables in your lambdas   And these symbols must be there even when the surrounding function returns  The problem is that these symbols are bound to some local storage of the function  usually on the call stack   which won t be there anymore when the function returns  Therefore  in order for a lambda to work the way you expect  you need to somehow  capture  all these free variables from its outer context and save them for later  even when the outer context will be gone  That is  you need to find the closure of your lambda  all these external variables it uses  and store it somewhere else  either by making a copy  or by preparing space for them upfront  somewhere else than on the stack   The actual method you use to achieve this goal is an  implementation detail  of your language  What s important here is the closure  which is the set of free variables from the environment of your lambda that need to be saved somewhere   It didn t took too long for people to start calling the actual data structure they use in their language s implementations to implement closure as the  closure  itself  The structure usually looks something like this   Closure       pointer to the lambda function s machine code       pointer to the lambda function s environment      and these data structures are being passed around as parameters to other functions  returned from functions  and stored in variables  to represent lambdas  and allowing them to access their enclosing environment as well as the machine code to run in that context  But it s just a way  one of many  to implement closure  not the closure itself   As I explained above  the closure of a lambda expression is the subset of definitions in its environment that give values to the free variables contained in that lambda expression  effectively closing the expression  turning an open lambda expression  which cannot be evaluated yet  into a closed lambda expression  which can then be evaluated  since all the symbols contained in it are now defined    Anything else is just a  cargo cult  and  voo-doo magic  of programmers and language vendors unaware of the real roots of these notions   I hope that answers your questions  But if you had any follow-up questions  feel free to ask them in the comments  and I ll try to explain it better

User · Answer

It depends on whether a function uses external variable or not to perform operation    External variables -  variables defined outside the scope of a function    Lambda expressions are stateless because It depends on parameters  internal variables or constants to perform operations   Function lt Integer Integer gt  lambda   t - gt        int n   2     return t   n     Closures hold state because it uses external variables  i e  variable defined outside the scope of the function body   along with parameters and constants to perform operations   int n   2  Function lt Integer Integer gt  closure   t - gt        return t   n       When Java creates closure  it keeps the variable n with the function so it can be referenced when passed to other functions or used anywhere

User · Answer

From the view of programming languages  they are completely two different things   Basically for a Turing complete language we only needs very limited elements  e g  abstraction  application and reduction  Abstraction and application provides the way you can build up lamdba expression  and reduction dertermines the meaning of the lambda expression   Lambda provides a way you can abstract the computation process out   for example  to compute the sum of two numbers  a process which takes two parameters x  y and returns x y can be abstracted out  In scheme  you can write it as   lambda  x y     x y     You can rename the parameters  but the task that it completes doesn t change   In almost all of programming languages  you can give the lambda expression a name  which are named functions  But there is no much difference  they can be conceptually considered as just syntax sugar   OK  now imagine how this can be implemented  Whenever we apply the lambda expression to some expressions  e g     lambda  x y     x y   2 3    We can simply substitute the parameters with the expression to be evaluated  This model is already very powerful  But this model doesn t enable us to change the values of symbols  e g  We can t mimic the change of status  Thus we need a more complex model   To make it short  whenever we want to calculate the meaning of the lambda expression  we put the pair of symbol and the corresponding value into an environment or table   Then the rest    x y  is evaluated by looking up the corresponding symbols in the table  Now if we provide some primitives to operate on the environment directly  we can model the changes of status   With this background  check this function    lambda  x y     x y z     We know that when we evaluate the lambda expression  x y will be bound in a new table  But how and where can we look z up  Actually z is called a free variable  There must be an outer  an environment which contains z  Otherwise the meaning of the expression can t be determined by only binding x and y  To make this clear  you can write something as follows in scheme     lambda  z   lambda  x y     x y z    1    So z would be bound to 1 in an outer table  We still get a function which accepts two parameters but the real meaning of it also depends on the outer environment  In other words the outer environment closes on the free variables  With the help of set   we  can make the function stateful  i e  it s not a function in the sense of maths  What it returns not only depends on the input  but z as well   This is something you already know very well  a method of objects almost always relies on the state of objects  That s why some people say  closures are poor man s objects    But we could also consider objects as poor man s closures since we really like first class functions   I use scheme to illustrate the ideas due to that scheme is one of the earliest language which has real closures  All of the materials here are much better presented in SICP chapter 3   To sum up  lambda and closure are really different concepts  A lambda is a function  A closure is a pair of lambda and the corresponding environment which closes the lambda

User · Answer

Not all closures are lambdas and not all lambdas are closures. Both are functions, but not necessarily in the manner we're used to knowing.

A lambda is essentially a function that is defined inline rather than the standard method of declaring functions. Lambdas can frequently be passed around as objects.

A closure is a function that encloses its surrounding state by referencing fields external to its body. The enclosed state remains across invocations of the closure.

In an object-oriented language, closures are normally provided through objects. However, some OO languages (e.g. C#) implement special functionality that is closer to the definition of closures provided by purely functional languages (such as lisp) that do not have objects to enclose state.

What's interesting is that the introduction of Lambdas and Closures in C# brings functional programming closer to mainstream usage.

User · Answer

When most people think of functions  they think of named functions   function foo     return  This string is returned from the  foo  function       These are called by name  of course   foo      returns the string above   With lambda expressions  you can have anonymous functions     foo   lambda    return  This is returned from a function without a name      With the above example  you can call the lambda through the variable it was assigned to   foo      More useful than assigning anonymous functions to variables  however  are passing them to or from higher-order functions  i e   functions that accept return other functions  In a lot of these cases  naming a function is unecessary   function filter list  predicate       filteredList          for-each   x in list  if  predicate x   filteredList add x      return filteredList        filter for even numbers filter  0 1 2 3 4 5 6   lambda x   return  x mod 2    0        A closure may be a named or anonymous function  but is known as such when it  closes over  variables in the scope where the function is defined  i e   the closure will still refer to the environment with any outer variables that are used in the closure itself  Here s a named closure    x   0   function incrementX     x   x   1    incrementX       x now equals 1   That doesn t seem like much but what if this was all in another function and you passed incrementX to an external function   function foo       x   0      function incrementX          x   x   1        return x            return incrementX       y   foo       y   closure of incrementX over foo x y      returns 1  y x    0   1  y      returns 2  y x    1   1    This is how you get stateful objects in functional programming  Since naming  incrementX  isn t needed  you can use a lambda in this case   function foo       x   0      return lambda                 x   x   1               return x

User · Answer

Simply speaking  closure is a trick about scope  lambda is an anonymous function  We can realize closure with lambda more elegantly and lambda is often used as a parameter passed to a higher function

User · Answer

A lambda is just an anonymous function - a function defined with no name  In some languages  such as Scheme  they are equivalent to named functions  In fact  the function definition is re-written as binding a lambda to a variable internally  In other languages  like Python  there are some  rather needless  distinctions between them  but they behave the same way otherwise   A closure is any function which closes over the environment in which it was defined  This means that it can access variables not in its parameter list  Examples   def func    return h def anotherfunc h      return func     This will cause an error  because func does not close over the environment in anotherfunc - h is undefined  func only closes over the global environment  This will work   def anotherfunc h       def func    return h     return func     Because here  func is defined in anotherfunc  and in python 2 3 and greater  or some number like this  when they almost got closures correct  mutation still doesn t work   this means that it closes over anotherfunc s environment and can access variables inside of it   In Python 3 1   mutation works too when using the nonlocal keyword   Another important point - func will continue to close over anotherfunc s environment even when it s no longer being evaluated in anotherfunc  This code will also work   def anotherfunc h       def func    return h     return func  print anotherfunc 10      This will print 10   This  as you notice  has nothing to do with lambdas - they are two different  although related  concepts

User · Answer

This question is old and got many answers  Now with Java 8 and Official Lambda that are unofficial closure projects  it revives the question   The answer in Java context  via Lambdas and closures     what   s the difference         A closure is a lambda expression paired with an environment that binds each of its free variables to a value  In Java  lambda expressions will be implemented by means of closures  so the two terms have come to be used interchangeably in the community

User · Answer

A lambda is just an anonymous function - a function defined with no name  In some languages  such as Scheme  they are equivalent to named functions  In fact  the function definition is re-written as binding a lambda to a variable internally  In other languages  like Python  there are some  rather needless  distinctions between them  but they behave the same way otherwise   A closure is any function which closes over the environment in which it was defined  This means that it can access variables not in its parameter list  Examples   def func    return h def anotherfunc h      return func     This will cause an error  because func does not close over the environment in anotherfunc - h is undefined  func only closes over the global environment  This will work   def anotherfunc h       def func    return h     return func     Because here  func is defined in anotherfunc  and in python 2 3 and greater  or some number like this  when they almost got closures correct  mutation still doesn t work   this means that it closes over anotherfunc s environment and can access variables inside of it   In Python 3 1   mutation works too when using the nonlocal keyword   Another important point - func will continue to close over anotherfunc s environment even when it s no longer being evaluated in anotherfunc  This code will also work   def anotherfunc h       def func    return h     return func  print anotherfunc 10      This will print 10   This  as you notice  has nothing to do with lambdas - they are two different  although related  concepts

User · Answer

There is a lot of confusion around lambdas and closures  even in the answers to this StackOverflow question here  Instead of asking random programmers who learned about closures from practice with certain programming languages or other clueless programmers  take a journey to the source  where it all began   And since lambdas and closures come from Lambda Calculus invented by Alonzo Church back in the  30s before first electronic computers even existed  this is the source I m talking about   Lambda Calculus is the simplest programming language in the world  The only things you can do in it     APPLICATION  Applying one expression to another  denoted f x  Think of it as a function call  where f is the function and x is its only parameter  ABSTRACTION  Binds a symbol occurring in an expression to mark that this symbol is just a  slot   a blank box waiting to be filled with value  a  variable  as it were  It is done by prepending a Greek letter    lambda   then the symbolic name  e g  x   then a dot   before the expression  This then converts the expression into a function expecting one parameter For example   x x 2 takes the expression x 2 and tells that the symbol x in this expression is a bound variable     it can be substituted with a value you supply as a parameter  Note that the function defined this way is anonymous     it doesn t have a name  so you can t refer to it yet  but you can immediately call it  remember application   by supplying it the parameter it is waiting for  like this    x x 2  7  Then the expression  in this case a literal value  7 is substituted as x in the subexpression x 2 of the applied lambda  so you get 7 2  which then reduces to 9 by common arithmetics rules    So we ve solved one of the mysteries  lambda is the anonymous function from the example above   x x 2   In different programming languages  the syntax for functional abstraction  lambda  may differ  For example  in JavaScript it looks like this   function x    return x 2      and you can immediately apply it to some parameter like this    function x    return x 2     7    or you can store this anonymous function  lambda  into some variable   var f   function x    return x 2      which effectively gives it a name f  allowing you to refer to it and call it multiple times later  e g    alert   f 7    f 10           should print 21 in the message box   But you didn t have to name it  You could call it immediately   alert   function x    return x 2     7          should print 9 in the message box   In LISP  lambdas are made like this    lambda  x     x 2     and you can call such a lambda by applying it immediately to a parameter       lambda  x     x 2    7       OK  now it s time to solve the other mystery  what is a closure  In order to do that  let s talk about symbols  variables  in lambda expressions   As I said  what the lambda abstraction does is binding a symbol in its subexpression  so that it becomes a substitutible parameter  Such a symbol is called bound  But what if there are other symbols in the expression  For example   x x y 2  In this expression  the symbol x is bound by the lambda abstraction  x  preceding it  But the other symbol  y  is not bound     it is free  We don t know what it is and where it comes from  so we don t know what it means and what value it represents  and therefore we cannot evaluate that expression until we figure out what y means   In fact  the same goes with the other two symbols  2 and    It s just that we are so familiar with these two symbols that we usually forget that the computer doesn t know them and we need to tell it what they mean by defining them somewhere  e g  in a library or the language itself   You can think of the free symbols as defined somewhere else  outside the expression  in its  surrounding context   which is called its environment  The environment might be a bigger expression that this expression is a part of  as Qui-Gon Jinn said   There s always a bigger fish        or in some library  or in the language itself  as a primitive    This lets us divide lambda expressions into two categories    CLOSED expressions  every symbol that occurs in these expressions is bound by some lambda abstraction  In other words  they are self-contained  they don t require any surrounding context to be evaluated  They are also called combinators  OPEN expressions  some symbols in these expressions are not bound     that is  some of the symbols occurring in them are free and they require some external information  and thus they cannot be evaluated until you supply the definitions of these symbols    You can CLOSE an open lambda expression by supplying the environment  which defines all these free symbols by binding them to some values  which may be numbers  strings  anonymous functions aka lambdas  whatever       And here comes the closure part  The closure of a lambda expression is this particular set of symbols defined in the outer context  environment  that give values to the free symbols in this expression  making them non-free anymore  It turns an open lambda expression  which still contains some  undefined  free symbols  into a closed one  which doesn t have any free symbols anymore   For example  if you have the following lambda expression   x x y 2  the symbol x is bound  while the symbol y is free  therefore the expression is open and cannot be evaluated unless you say what y means  and the same with   and 2  which are also free   But suppose that you also have an environment like this      y  3      built-in addition   2   built-in number   q  42  w  5      This environment supplies definitions for all the  undefined   free  symbols from our lambda expression  y     2   and several extra symbols  q  w   The symbols that we need to be defined are this subset of the environment      y  3      built-in addition   2   built-in number       and this is precisely the closure of our lambda expression     In other words  it closes an open lambda expression  This is where the name closure came from in the first place  and this is why so many people s answers in this thread are not quite correct  P  So why are they mistaken  Why do so many of them say that closures are some data structures in memory  or some features of the languages they use  or why do they confuse closures with lambdas   P  Well  the corporate marketoids of Sun Oracle  Microsoft  Google etc  are to blame  because that s what they called these constructs in their languages  Java  C   Go etc    They often call  closures  what are supposed to be just lambdas  Or they call  closures  a particular technique they used to implement lexical scoping  that is  the fact that a function can access the variables that were defined in its outer scope at the time of its definition  They often say that the function  encloses  these variables  that is  captures them into some data structure to save them from being destroyed after the outer function finishes executing  But this is just made-up post factum  folklore etymology  and marketing  which only makes things more confusing  because every language vendor uses its own terminology   And it s even worse because of the fact that there s always a bit of truth in what they say  which does not allow you to easily dismiss it as false  P Let me explain   If you want to implement a language that uses lambdas as first-class citizens  you need to allow them to use symbols defined in their surrounding context  that is  to use free variables in your lambdas   And these symbols must be there even when the surrounding function returns  The problem is that these symbols are bound to some local storage of the function  usually on the call stack   which won t be there anymore when the function returns  Therefore  in order for a lambda to work the way you expect  you need to somehow  capture  all these free variables from its outer context and save them for later  even when the outer context will be gone  That is  you need to find the closure of your lambda  all these external variables it uses  and store it somewhere else  either by making a copy  or by preparing space for them upfront  somewhere else than on the stack   The actual method you use to achieve this goal is an  implementation detail  of your language  What s important here is the closure  which is the set of free variables from the environment of your lambda that need to be saved somewhere   It didn t took too long for people to start calling the actual data structure they use in their language s implementations to implement closure as the  closure  itself  The structure usually looks something like this   Closure       pointer to the lambda function s machine code       pointer to the lambda function s environment      and these data structures are being passed around as parameters to other functions  returned from functions  and stored in variables  to represent lambdas  and allowing them to access their enclosing environment as well as the machine code to run in that context  But it s just a way  one of many  to implement closure  not the closure itself   As I explained above  the closure of a lambda expression is the subset of definitions in its environment that give values to the free variables contained in that lambda expression  effectively closing the expression  turning an open lambda expression  which cannot be evaluated yet  into a closed lambda expression  which can then be evaluated  since all the symbols contained in it are now defined    Anything else is just a  cargo cult  and  voo-doo magic  of programmers and language vendors unaware of the real roots of these notions   I hope that answers your questions  But if you had any follow-up questions  feel free to ask them in the comments  and I ll try to explain it better

User · Answer

A lambda is just an anonymous function - a function defined with no name  In some languages  such as Scheme  they are equivalent to named functions  In fact  the function definition is re-written as binding a lambda to a variable internally  In other languages  like Python  there are some  rather needless  distinctions between them  but they behave the same way otherwise   A closure is any function which closes over the environment in which it was defined  This means that it can access variables not in its parameter list  Examples   def func    return h def anotherfunc h      return func     This will cause an error  because func does not close over the environment in anotherfunc - h is undefined  func only closes over the global environment  This will work   def anotherfunc h       def func    return h     return func     Because here  func is defined in anotherfunc  and in python 2 3 and greater  or some number like this  when they almost got closures correct  mutation still doesn t work   this means that it closes over anotherfunc s environment and can access variables inside of it   In Python 3 1   mutation works too when using the nonlocal keyword   Another important point - func will continue to close over anotherfunc s environment even when it s no longer being evaluated in anotherfunc  This code will also work   def anotherfunc h       def func    return h     return func  print anotherfunc 10      This will print 10   This  as you notice  has nothing to do with lambdas - they are two different  although related  concepts

User · Answer

When most people think of functions  they think of named functions   function foo     return  This string is returned from the  foo  function       These are called by name  of course   foo      returns the string above   With lambda expressions  you can have anonymous functions     foo   lambda    return  This is returned from a function without a name      With the above example  you can call the lambda through the variable it was assigned to   foo      More useful than assigning anonymous functions to variables  however  are passing them to or from higher-order functions  i e   functions that accept return other functions  In a lot of these cases  naming a function is unecessary   function filter list  predicate       filteredList          for-each   x in list  if  predicate x   filteredList add x      return filteredList        filter for even numbers filter  0 1 2 3 4 5 6   lambda x   return  x mod 2    0        A closure may be a named or anonymous function  but is known as such when it  closes over  variables in the scope where the function is defined  i e   the closure will still refer to the environment with any outer variables that are used in the closure itself  Here s a named closure    x   0   function incrementX     x   x   1    incrementX       x now equals 1   That doesn t seem like much but what if this was all in another function and you passed incrementX to an external function   function foo       x   0      function incrementX          x   x   1        return x            return incrementX       y   foo       y   closure of incrementX over foo x y      returns 1  y x    0   1  y      returns 2  y x    1   1    This is how you get stateful objects in functional programming  Since naming  incrementX  isn t needed  you can use a lambda in this case   function foo       x   0      return lambda                 x   x   1               return x

User · Answer

This question is old and got many answers  Now with Java 8 and Official Lambda that are unofficial closure projects  it revives the question   The answer in Java context  via Lambdas and closures     what   s the difference         A closure is a lambda expression paired with an environment that binds each of its free variables to a value  In Java  lambda expressions will be implemented by means of closures  so the two terms have come to be used interchangeably in the community

User · Answer

A lambda is just an anonymous function - a function defined with no name  In some languages  such as Scheme  they are equivalent to named functions  In fact  the function definition is re-written as binding a lambda to a variable internally  In other languages  like Python  there are some  rather needless  distinctions between them  but they behave the same way otherwise   A closure is any function which closes over the environment in which it was defined  This means that it can access variables not in its parameter list  Examples   def func    return h def anotherfunc h      return func     This will cause an error  because func does not close over the environment in anotherfunc - h is undefined  func only closes over the global environment  This will work   def anotherfunc h       def func    return h     return func     Because here  func is defined in anotherfunc  and in python 2 3 and greater  or some number like this  when they almost got closures correct  mutation still doesn t work   this means that it closes over anotherfunc s environment and can access variables inside of it   In Python 3 1   mutation works too when using the nonlocal keyword   Another important point - func will continue to close over anotherfunc s environment even when it s no longer being evaluated in anotherfunc  This code will also work   def anotherfunc h       def func    return h     return func  print anotherfunc 10      This will print 10   This  as you notice  has nothing to do with lambdas - they are two different  although related  concepts

User · Answer

When most people think of functions  they think of named functions   function foo     return  This string is returned from the  foo  function       These are called by name  of course   foo      returns the string above   With lambda expressions  you can have anonymous functions     foo   lambda    return  This is returned from a function without a name      With the above example  you can call the lambda through the variable it was assigned to   foo      More useful than assigning anonymous functions to variables  however  are passing them to or from higher-order functions  i e   functions that accept return other functions  In a lot of these cases  naming a function is unecessary   function filter list  predicate       filteredList          for-each   x in list  if  predicate x   filteredList add x      return filteredList        filter for even numbers filter  0 1 2 3 4 5 6   lambda x   return  x mod 2    0        A closure may be a named or anonymous function  but is known as such when it  closes over  variables in the scope where the function is defined  i e   the closure will still refer to the environment with any outer variables that are used in the closure itself  Here s a named closure    x   0   function incrementX     x   x   1    incrementX       x now equals 1   That doesn t seem like much but what if this was all in another function and you passed incrementX to an external function   function foo       x   0      function incrementX          x   x   1        return x            return incrementX       y   foo       y   closure of incrementX over foo x y      returns 1  y x    0   1  y      returns 2  y x    1   1    This is how you get stateful objects in functional programming  Since naming  incrementX  isn t needed  you can use a lambda in this case   function foo       x   0      return lambda                 x   x   1               return x

User · Answer

Simply speaking  closure is a trick about scope  lambda is an anonymous function  We can realize closure with lambda more elegantly and lambda is often used as a parameter passed to a higher function

[function] What is the difference between a 'closure' and a 'lambda'?

Examples related to function

Examples related to lambda

Examples related to functional-programming

Examples related to closures