Compiling an application for use in highly radioactive environments

Question

We are compiling an embedded C   application that is deployed in a shielded device in an environment bombarded with ionizing radiation  We are using GCC and cross-compiling for ARM  When deployed  our application generates some erroneous data and crashes more often than we would like  The hardware is designed for this environment  and our application has run on this platform for several years  Are there changes we can make to our code  or compile-time improvements that can be made to identify correct soft errors and memory-corruption caused by single event upsets  Have any other developers had success in reducing the harmful effects of soft errors on a long-running application

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You may also be interested in the rich literature on the subject of algorithmic fault tolerance. This includes the old assignment: Write a sort that correctly sorts its input when a constant number of comparisons will fail (or, the slightly more evil version, when the asymptotic number of failed comparisons scales as log(n) for n comparisons).

A place to start reading is Huang and Abraham's 1984 paper "Algorithm-Based Fault Tolerance for Matrix Operations". Their idea is vaguely similar to homomorphic encrypted computation (but it is not really the same, since they are attempting error detection/correction at the operation level).

A more recent descendant of that paper is Bosilca, Delmas, Dongarra, and Langou's "Algorithm-based fault tolerance applied to high performance computing".

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Here are huge amount of replies  but I ll try to sum up my ideas about this   Something crashes or does not work correctly could be result of your own mistakes - then it should be easily to fix when you locate the problem  But there is also possibility of hardware failures - and that s difficult if not impossible to fix in overall   I would recommend first to try to catch the problematic situation by logging  stack  registers  function calls  - either by logging them somewhere into file  or transmitting them somehow directly   oh no - I m crashing     Recovery from such error situation is either reboot  if software is still alive and kicking  or hardware reset  e g  hw watchdogs   Easier to start from first one   If problem is hardware related - then logging should help you to identify in which function call problem occurs and that can give you inside knowledge of what is not working and where   Also if code is relatively complex - it makes sense to  divide and conquer  it - meaning you remove   disable some function calls where you suspect problem is - typically disabling half of code and enabling another half - you can get  does work     does not work  kind of decision after which you can focus into another half of code   Where problem is   If problem occurs after some time - then stack overflow can be suspected - then it s better to monitor stack point registers - if they constantly grows   And if you manage to fully minimize your code until  hello world  kind of application - and it s still failing randomly - then hardware problems are expected - and there needs to be  hardware upgrade  - meaning invent such cpu   ram       -hardware combination which would tolerate radiation better   Most important thing is probably how you get your logs back if machine fully stopped   resetted   does not work - probably first thing bootstap should do - is a head back home if problematic situation is entcovered   If it s possible in your environment also to transmit a signal and receive response - you could try out to construct some sort of online remote debugging environment  but then you must have at least of communication media working and some processor  some ram in working state  And by remote debugging I mean either GDB   gdb stub kind of approach or your own implementation of what you need to get back from your application  e g  download log files  download call stack  download ram  restart

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One point no-one seems to have mentioned   You say you re developing in GCC and cross-compiling onto ARM   How do you know that you don t have code which makes assumptions about free RAM  integer size  pointer size  how long it takes to do a certain operation  how long the system will run for continuously  or various stuff like that   This is a very common problem   The answer is usually automated unit testing   Write test harnesses which exercise the code on the development system  then run the same test harnesses on the target system   Look for differences   Also check for errata on your embedded device   You may find there s something about  don t do this because it ll crash  so enable that compiler option and the compiler will work around it    In short  your most likely source of crashes is bugs in your code   Until you ve made pretty damn sure this isn t the case  don t worry  yet  about more esoteric failure modes

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Since you specifically ask for software solutions  and you are using C    why not use operator overloading to make your own  safe datatypes  For example   Instead of using uint32 t  and double  int64 t etc   make your own SAFE uint32 t which contains a multiple  minimum of 3  of uint32 t  Overload all of the operations you want      -    lt  lt             etc  to perform  and make the overloaded operations perform independently on each internal value  ie don t do it once and copy the result  Both before and after  check that all of the internal values match  If values don t match  you can update the wrong one to the value with the most common one  If there is no most-common value  you can safely notify that there is an error   This way it doesn t matter if corruption occurs in the ALU  registers  RAM  or on a bus  you will still have multiple attempts and a very good chance of catching errors  Note however though that this only works for the variables you can replace - your stack pointer for example will still be susceptible   A side story  I ran into a similar issue  also on an old ARM chip  It turned out to be a toolchain which used an old version of GCC that  together with the specific chip we used  triggered a bug in certain edge cases that would  sometimes  corrupt values being passed into functions  Make sure your device doesn t have any problems before blaming it on radio-activity  and yes  sometimes it is a compiler bug

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If your hardware fails then you can use mechanical storage to recover it  If your code base is small and have some physical space then you can use a mechanical data store     There will be a surface of material which will not be affected by radiation  Multiple gears will be there  A mechanical reader will run on all the gears and will be flexible to move up and down  Down means it is 0 and up means it is 1  From 0 and 1 you can generate your code base

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Use a cyclic scheduler  This gives you the ability to add regular maintenance times to check the correctness of critical data  The problem most often encountered is corruption of the stack  If your software is cyclical you can reinitialise the stack between cycles  Do not reuse the stacks for interrupt calls  setup a separate stack of each important interrupt call   Similar to the Watchdog concept is deadline timers  Start a hardware timer before calling a function  If the function does not return before the deadline timer interrupts then reload the stack and try again  If it still fails after 3 5 tries you need reload from ROM   Split your software into parts and isolate these parts to use separate memory areas and execution times  Especially in a control environment   Example  signal acquisition  prepossessing data  main algorithm and result implementation transmission  This means a failure in one part will not cause failures through the rest of the program  So while we are repairing the signal acquisition the rest of tasks continues on stale data    Everything needs CRCs  If you execute out of RAM even your  text needs a CRC  Check the CRCs regularly if you using a cyclical scheduler  Some compilers  not GCC  can generate CRCs for each section and some processors have dedicated hardware to do CRC calculations  but I guess that would fall out side of the scope of your question  Checking CRCs also prompts the ECC controller on the memory to repair single bit errors before it becomes a problem

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This is an extremely broad subject  Basically  you can t really recover from memory corruption  but you can at least try to fail promptly  Here are a few techniques you could use    checksum constant data  If you have any configuration data which stays constant for a long time  including hardware registers you have configured   compute its checksum on initialization and verify it periodically  When you see a mismatch  it s time to re-initialize or reset  store variables with redundancy  If you have an important variable x  write its value in x1  x2 and x3 and read it as  x1    x2    x2   x3  implement program flow monitoring  XOR a global flag with a unique value in important functions branches called from the main loop  Running the program in a radiation-free environment with near-100  test coverage should give you the list of acceptable values of the flag at the end of the cycle  Reset if you see deviations  monitor the stack pointer  In the beginning of the main loop  compare the stack pointer with its expected value  Reset on deviation

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It may be possible to use C to write programs that behave robustly in such environments  but only if most forms of compiler optimization are disabled   Optimizing compilers are designed to replace many seemingly-redundant coding patterns with  more efficient  ones  and may have no clue that the reason the programmer is testing x  42 when the compiler knows there s no way x could possibly hold anything else is because the programmer wants to prevent the execution of certain code with x holding some other value--even in cases where the only way it could hold that value would be if the system received some kind of electrical glitch   Declaring variables as volatile is often helpful  but may not be a panacea  Of particular importance  note that safe coding often requires that dangerous operations have hardware interlocks that require multiple steps to activate  and that code be written using the pattern       code that checks system state if  system state favors activation      prepare for activation          code that checks system state again   if  system state is valid          if  system state favors activation        trigger activation          else     perform safety shutdown and restart      cancel preparations      If a compiler translates the code in relatively literal fashion  and if all the checks for system state are repeated after the prepare for activation    the system may be robust against almost any plausible single glitch event  even those which would arbitrarily corrupt the program counter and stack   If a glitch occurs just after a call to prepare for activation    that would imply that activation would have been appropriate  since there s no other reason prepare for activation   would have been called before the glitch   If the glitch causes code to reach prepare for activation   inappropriately  but there are no subsequent glitch events  there would be no way for code to subsequently reach trigger activation   without having passed through the validation check or calling cancel preparations first  if the stack glitches  execution might proceed to a spot just before trigger activation   after the context that called prepare for activation   returns  but the call to cancel preparations   would have occurred between the calls to prepare for activation   and trigger activation    thus rendering the latter call harmless   Such code may be safe in traditional C  but not with modern C compilers   Such compilers can be very dangerous in that sort of environment because aggressive they strive to only include code which will be relevant in situations that could come about via some well-defined mechanism and whose resulting consequences would also be well defined   Code whose purpose would be to detect and clean up after failures may  in some cases  end up making things worse   If the compiler determines that the attempted recovery would in some cases invoke undefined behavior  it may infer that the conditions that would necessitate such recovery in such cases cannot possibly occur  thus eliminating the code that would have checked for them

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This answer assumes you are concerned with having a system that works correctly  over and above having a system that is minimum cost or fast  most people playing with radioactive things value correctness   safety over speed   cost  Several people have suggested hardware changes you can make  fine - there s lots of good stuff here in answers already and I don t intend repeating all of it   and others have suggested redundancy  great in principle   but I don t think anyone has suggested how that redundancy might work in practice  How do you fail over  How do you know when something has  gone wrong   Many technologies work on the basis everything will work  and failure is thus a tricky thing to deal with  However  some distributed computing technologies designed for scale expect failure  after all with enough scale  failure of one node of many is inevitable with any MTBF for a single node   you can harness this for your environment   Here are some ideas    Ensure that your entire hardware is replicated n times  where n is greater than 2  and preferably odd   and that each hardware element can communicate with each other hardware element  Ethernet is one obvious way to do that  but there are many other far simpler routes that would give better protection  e g  CAN   Minimise common components  even power supplies   This may mean sampling ADC inputs in multiple places for instance  Ensure your application state is in a single place  e g  in a finite state machine  This can be entirely RAM based  though does not preclude stable storage  It will thus be stored in several place  Adopt a quorum protocol for changes of state  See RAFT for example  As you are working in C    there are well known libraries for this  Changes to the FSM would only get made when a majority of nodes agree  Use a known good library for the protocol stack and the quorum protocol rather than rolling one yourself  or all your good work on redundancy will be wasted when the quorum protocol hangs up  Ensure you checksum  e g  CRC SHA  your FSM  and store the CRC SHA in the FSM itself  as well as transmitting in the message  and checksumming the messages themselves   Get the nodes to check their FSM regularly against these checksum  checksum incoming messages  and check their checksum matches the checksum of the quorum  Build as many other internal checks into your system as possible  making nodes that detect their own failure reboot  this is better than carrying on half working provided you have enough nodes   Attempt to let them cleanly remove themselves from the quorum during rebooting in case they don t come up again  On reboot have them checksum the software image  and anything else they load  and do a full RAM test before reintroducing themselves to the quorum  Use hardware to support you  but do so carefully  You can get ECC RAM  for instance  and regularly read write through it to correct ECC errors  and panic if the error is uncorrectable   However  from memory  static RAM is far more tolerant of ionizing radiation than DRAM is in the first place  so it may be better to use static DRAM instead  See the first point under  things I would not do  as well    Let s say you have an 1  chance of failure of any given node within one day  and let s pretend you can make failures entirely independent  With 5 nodes  you ll need three to fail within one day  which is a  00001  chance  With more  well  you get the idea   Things I would not do    Underestimate the value of not having the problem to start off with  Unless weight is a concern  a large block of metal around your device is going to be a far cheaper and more reliable solution than a team of programmers can come up with  Ditto optical coupling of inputs of EMI is an issue  etc  Whatever  attempt when sourcing your components to source those rated best against ionizing radiation  Roll your own algorithms  People have done this stuff before  Use their work  Fault tolerance and distributed algorithms are hard  Use other people s work where possible  Use complicated compiler settings in the naive hope you detect more failures  If you are lucky  you may detect more failures  More likely  you will use a code-path within the compiler which has been less tested  particularly if you rolled it yourself  Use techniques which are untested in your environment  Most people writing high availability software have to simulate failure modes to check their HA works correctly  and miss many failure modes as a result  You are in the  fortunate  position of having frequent failures on demand  So test each technique  and ensure its application actual improves MTBF by an amount that exceeds the complexity to introduce it  with complexity comes bugs   Especially apply this to my advice re quorum algorithms etc

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Here are some thoughts and ideas   Use ROM more creatively   Store anything you can in ROM  Instead of calculating things  store look-up tables in ROM   Make sure your compiler is outputting your look-up tables to the read-only section  Print out memory addresses at runtime to check   Store your interrupt vector table in ROM  Of course  run some tests to see how reliable your ROM is compared to your RAM   Use your best RAM for the stack   SEUs in the stack are probably the most likely source of crashes  because it is where things like index variables  status variables  return addresses  and pointers of various sorts typically live   Implement timer-tick and watchdog timer routines   You can run a  sanity check  routine every timer tick  as well as a watchdog routine to handle the system locking up  Your main code could also periodically increment a counter to indicate progress  and the sanity-check routine could ensure this has occurred   Implement error-correcting-codes in software   You can add redundancy to your data to be able to detect and or correct errors  This will add processing time  potentially leaving the processor exposed to radiation for a longer time  thus increasing the chance of errors  so you must consider the trade-off   Remember the caches   Check the sizes of your CPU caches  Data that you have accessed or modified recently will probably be within a cache  I believe you can disable at least some of the caches  at a big performance cost   you should try this to see how susceptible the caches are to SEUs  If the caches are hardier than RAM then you could regularly read and re-write critical data to make sure it stays in cache and bring RAM back into line   Use page-fault handlers cleverly   If you mark a memory page as not-present  the CPU will issue a page fault when you try to access it  You can create a page-fault handler that does some checking before servicing the read request   PC operating systems use this to transparently load pages that have been swapped to disk    Use assembly language for critical things  which could be everything    With assembly language  you know what is in registers and what is in RAM  you know what special RAM tables the CPU is using  and you can design things in a roundabout way to keep your risk down   Use objdump to actually look at the generated assembly language  and work out how much code each of your routines takes up   If you are using a big OS like Linux then you are asking for trouble  there is just so much complexity and so many things to go wrong   Remember it is a game of probabilities   A commenter said     Every routine you write to catch errors will be subject to failing itself from the same cause    While this is true  the chances of errors in the  say  100 bytes of code and data required for a check routine to function correctly is much smaller than the chance of errors elsewhere  If your ROM is pretty reliable and almost all the code data is actually in ROM then your odds are even better   Use redundant hardware   Use 2 or more identical hardware setups with identical code  If the results differ  a reset should be triggered  With 3 or more devices you can use a  voting  system to try to identify which one has been compromised

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Working for about 4-5 years with software firmware development and environment testing of miniaturized satellites   I would like to share my experience here     miniaturized satellites are a lot more prone to single event upsets than bigger satellites due to its relatively small  limited sizes for its electronic components      To be very concise and direct  there is no mechanism to recover from detectable  erroneous   situation by the software firmware itself without  at least  one   copy of minimum working version of the software firmware somewhere for recovery purpose - and with the hardware supporting the recovery  functional     Now  this situation is normally handled both in the hardware and software level  Here  as you request  I will share what we can do in the software level       recovery purpose     Provide ability to update recompile reflash your software firmware in real environment  This is an almost must-have feature for any software firmware in highly ionized environment  Without this  you could have redundant software hardware as many as you want but at one point  they are all going to blow up  So  prepare this feature     minimum working version    Have responsive  multiple copies  minimum version of the software firmware in your code  This is like Safe mode in Windows  Instead of having only one  fully functional version of your software  have multiple copies of the minimum version of your software firmware  The minimum copy will usually having much less size than the full copy and almost always have only the following two or three features     capable of listening to command from external system   capable of updating the current software firmware   capable of monitoring the basic operation s housekeeping data      copy    somewhere    Have redundant software firmware somewhere     You could  with or without redundant hardware  try to have redundant software firmware in your ARM uC  This is normally done by having two or more identical software firmware in separate addresses which sending heartbeat to each other - but only one will be active at a time  If one or more software firmware is known to be unresponsive  switch to the other software firmware  The benefit of using this approach is we can have functional replacement immediately after an error occurs - without any contact with whatever external system party who is responsible to detect and to repair the error  in satellite case  it is usually the Mission Control Centre  MCC      Strictly speaking  without redundant hardware  the disadvantage of doing this is you actually cannot eliminate all single point of failures  At the very least  you will still have one single point of failure  which is the switch itself  or often the beginning of the code   Nevertheless  for a device limited by size in a highly ionized environment  such as pico femto satellites   the reduction of the single point of failures to one point without additional hardware will still be worth considering  Somemore  the piece of code for the switching would certainly be much less than the code for the whole program - significantly reducing the risk of getting Single Event in it  But if you are not doing this  you should have at least one copy in your external system which can come in contact with the device and update the software firmware  in the satellite case  it is again the mission control centre    You could also have the copy in your permanent memory storage in your device which can be triggered to restore the running system s software firmware     detectable erroneous situation   The error must be detectable  usually by the hardware error correction detection circuit or by a small piece of code for error correction detection  It is best to put such code small  multiple  and independent from the main software firmware  Its main task is only for checking correcting  If the hardware circuit firmware is reliable  such as it is more radiation hardened than the rests - or having multiple circuits logics   then you might consider making error-correction with it  But if it is not  it is better to make it as error-detection  The correction can be by external system device  For the error correction  you could consider making use of a basic error correction algorithm like Hamming Golay23  because they can be implemented more easily both in the circuit software  But it ultimately depends on your team s capability  For error detection  normally CRC is used     hardware supporting the recovery Now  comes to the most difficult aspect on this issue  Ultimately  the recovery requires the hardware which is responsible for the recovery to be at least functional  If the hardware is permanently broken  normally happen after its Total ionizing dose reaches certain level   then there is  sadly  no way for the software to help in recovery  Thus  hardware is rightly the utmost importance concern for a device exposed to high radiation level  such as satellite      In addition to the suggestion for above anticipating firmware s error due to single event upset  I would also like to suggest you to have    Error detection and or error correction algorithm in the inter-subsystem communication protocol  This is another almost must have in order to avoid incomplete wrong signals received from other system Filter in your ADC reading  Do not use the ADC reading directly  Filter it by median filter  mean filter  or any other filters - never trust single reading value  Sample more  not less - reasonably

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Disclaimer  I m not a radioactivity professional nor worked for this kind of application  But I worked on soft errors and redundancy for long term archival of critical data  which is somewhat linked  same problem  different goals    The main problem with radioactivity in my opinion is that radioactivity can switch bits  thus radioactivity can will tamper any digital memory  These errors are usually called soft errors  bit rot  etc   The question is then  how to compute reliably when your memory is unreliable   To significantly reduce the rate of soft errors  at the expense of computational overhead since it will mostly be software-based solutions   you can either    rely on the good old redundancy scheme  and more specifically the more efficient error correcting codes  same purpose  but cleverer algorithms so that you can recover more bits with less redundancy   This is sometimes  wrongly  also called checksumming  With this kind of solution  you will have to store the full state of your program at any moment in a master variable class  or a struct    compute an ECC  and check that the ECC is correct before doing anything  and if not  repair the fields  This solution however does not guarantee that your software can work  simply that it will work correctly when it can  or stops working if not  because ECC can tell you if something is wrong  and in this case you can stop your software so that you don t get fake results   or you can use resilient algorithmic data structures  which guarantee  up to a some bound  that your program will still give correct results even in the presence of soft errors  These algorithms can be seen as a mix of common algorithmic structures with ECC schemes natively mixed in  but this is much more resilient than that  because the resiliency scheme is tightly bounded to the structure  so that you don t need to encode additional procedures to check the ECC  and usually they are a lot faster  These structures provide a way to ensure that your program will work under any condition  up to the theoretical bound of soft errors  You can also mix these resilient structures with the redundancy ECC scheme for additional security  or encode your most important data structures as resilient  and the rest  the expendable data that you can recompute from the main data structures  as normal data structures with a bit of ECC or a parity check which is very fast to compute     If you are interested in resilient data structures  which is a recent  but exciting  new field in algorithmics and redundancy engineering   I advise you to read the following documents    Resilient algorithms data structures intro by Giuseppe F Italiano  Universita di Roma  Tor Vergata  Christiano  P   Demaine  E  D    amp  Kishore  S   2011   Lossless fault-tolerant data structures with additive overhead  In Algorithms and Data Structures  pp  243-254   Springer Berlin Heidelberg  Ferraro-Petrillo  U   Grandoni  F    amp  Italiano  G  F   2013   Data structures resilient to memory faults  an experimental study of dictionaries  Journal of Experimental Algorithmics  JEA   18  1-6  Italiano  G  F   2010   Resilient algorithms and data structures  In Algorithms and Complexity  pp  13-24   Springer Berlin Heidelberg    If you are interested in knowing more about the field of resilient data structures  you can checkout the works of Giuseppe F  Italiano  and work your way through the refs  and the Faulty-RAM model  introduced in Finocchi et al  2005  Finocchi and Italiano 2008     EDIT  I illustrated the prevention recovery from soft-errors mainly for RAM memory and data storage  but I didn t talk about computation  CPU  errors  Other answers already pointed at using atomic transactions like in databases  so I will propose another  simpler scheme  redundancy and majority vote   The idea is that you simply do x times the same computation for each computation you need to do  and store the result in x different variables  with x    3   You can then compare your x variables    if they all agree  then there s no computation error at all  if they disagree  then you can use a majority vote to get the correct value  and since this means the computation was partially corrupted  you can also trigger a system program state scan to check that the rest is ok  if the majority vote cannot determine a winner  all x values are different   then it s a perfect signal for you to trigger the failsafe procedure  reboot  raise an alert to user  etc      This redundancy scheme is very fast compared to ECC  practically O 1   and it provides you with a clear signal when you need to failsafe  The majority vote is also  almost  guaranteed to never produce corrupted output and also to recover from minor computation errors  because the probability that x computations give the same output is infinitesimal  because there is a huge amount of possible outputs  it s almost impossible to randomly get 3 times the same  even less chances if x   3    So with majority vote you are safe from corrupted output  and with redundancy x    3  you can recover 1 error  with x    4 it will be 2 errors recoverable  etc  -- the exact equation is nb error recoverable     x-2  where x is the number of calculation repetitions because you need at least 2 agreeing calculations to recover using the majority vote    The drawback is that you need to compute x times instead of once  so you have an additional computation cost  but s linear complexity so asymptotically you don t lose much for the benefits you gain  A fast way to do a majority vote is to compute the mode on an array  but you can also use a median filter   Also  if you want to make extra sure the calculations are conducted correctly  if you can make your own hardware you can construct your device with x CPUs  and wire the system so that calculations are automatically duplicated across the x CPUs with a majority vote done mechanically at the end  using AND OR gates for example   This is often implemented in airplanes and mission-critical devices  see triple modular redundancy   This way  you would not have any computational overhead  since the additional calculations will be done in parallel   and you have another layer of protection from soft errors  since the calculation duplication and majority vote will be managed directly by the hardware and not by software -- which can more easily get corrupted since a program is simply bits stored in memory

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Perhaps it would help to know does it mean for the hardware to be  designed for this environment   How does it correct and or indicates the presence of SEU errors    At one space exploration related project  we had a custom MCU  which would raise an exception interrupt on SEU errors  but with some delay  i e  some cycles may pass instructions be executed after the one insn which caused the SEU exception   Particularly vulnerable was the data cache  so a handler would invalidate the offending cache line and restart the program  Only that  due to the imprecise nature of the exception  the sequence of insns headed by the exception raising insn may not be restartable   We identified the hazardous  not restartable  sequences  like lw  3  0x0  2   followed by an insn  which modifies  2 and is not data-dependent on  3   and I made modifications to GCC  so such sequences do not occur  e g  as a last resort  separating the two insns by a nop    Just something to consider

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Someone mentioned using slower chips to prevent ions from flipping bits as easily  In a similar fashion perhaps use a specialized cpu ram that actually uses multiple bits to store a single bit  Thus providing a hardware fault tolerance because it would be very unlikely that all of the bits would get flipped  So 1   1111 but would need to get hit 4 times to actually flipped   4 might be a bad number since if 2 bits get flipped its already ambiguous   So if you go with 8  you get 8 times less ram and some fraction slower access time but a much more reliable data representation  You could probably do this both on the software level with a specialized compiler allocate x amount more space for everything  or language implementation  write wrappers for data structures that allocate things this way   Or specialized hardware that has the same logical  structure but does this in the firmware

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Given supercat s comments  the tendencies of modern compilers  and other things  I d be tempted to go back to the ancient days and write the whole code in assembly and static memory allocations everywhere  For this kind of utter reliability I think assembly no longer incurs a large percentage difference of the cost

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What you ask is quite complex topic - not easily answerable  Other answers are ok  but they covered just a small part of all the things you need to do   As seen in comments  it is not possible to fix hardware problems 100   however it is possible with high probabily to reduce or catch them using various techniques   If I was you  I would create the software of the highest Safety integrity level level  SIL-4   Get the IEC 61513 document  for the nuclear industry  and follow it

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You want 3  slave machines with a master outside the radiation environment  All I O passes through the master which contains a vote and or retry mechanism  The slaves must have a hardware watchdog each and the call to bump them should be surrounded by CRCs or the like to reduce the probability of involuntary bumping  Bumping should be controlled by the master  so lost connection with master equals reboot within a few seconds   One advantage of this solution is that you can use the same API to the master as to the slaves  so redundancy becomes a transparent feature   Edit  From the comments I feel the need to clarify the  CRC idea   The possibilty of the slave bumping it s own watchdog is close to zero if you surround the bump with CRC or digest checks on random data from the master  That random data is only sent from master when the slave under scrutiny is aligned with the others  The random data and CRC digest are immediately cleared after each bump  The master-slave bump frequency should be more than double the watchdog timeout  The data sent from the master is uniquely generated every time

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Writing code for radioactive environments is not really any different than writing code for any mission-critical application  In addition to what has already been mentioned  here are some miscellaneous tips   Use everyday  quot bread  amp  butter quot  safety measures that should be present on any semi-professional embedded system  internal watchdog  internal low-voltage detect  internal clock monitor  These things shouldn t even need to be mentioned in the year 2016 and they are standard on pretty much every modern microcontroller   If you have a safety and or automotive-oriented MCU  it will have certain watchdog features  such as a given time window  inside which you need to refresh the watchdog  This is preferred if you have a mission-critical real-time system   In general  use a MCU suitable for these kind of systems  and not some generic mainstream fluff you received in a packet of corn flakes  Almost every MCU manufacturer nowadays have specialized MCUs designed for safety applications  TI  Freescale  Renesas  ST  Infineon etc etc   These have lots of built-in safety features  including lock-step cores  meaning that there are 2 CPU cores executing the same code  and they must agree with each other   IMPORTANT  You must ensure the integrity of internal MCU registers  All control  amp  status registers of hardware peripherals that are writeable may be located in RAM memory  and are therefore vulnerable  To protect yourself against register corruptions  preferably pick a microcontroller with built-in  quot write-once quot  features of registers  In addition  you need to store default values of all hardware registers in NVM and copy-down those values to your registers at regular intervals  You can ensure the integrity of important variables in the same manner  Note  always use defensive programming  Meaning that you have to setup all registers in the MCU and not just the ones used by the application  You don t want some random hardware peripheral to suddenly wake up   There are all kinds of methods to check for errors in RAM or NVM  checksums   quot walking patterns quot   software ECC etc etc  The best solution nowadays is to not use any of these  but to use a MCU with built-in ECC and similar checks  Because doing this in software is complex  and the error check in itself could therefore introduce bugs and unexpected problems   Use redundancy  You could store both volatile and non-volatile memory in two identical  quot mirror quot  segments  that must always be equivalent  Each segment could have a CRC checksum attached   Avoid using external memories outside the MCU   Implement a default interrupt service routine   default exception handler for all possible interrupts exceptions  Even the ones you are not using  The default routine should do nothing except shutting off its own interrupt source   Understand and embrace the concept of defensive programming  This means that your program needs to handle all possible cases  even those that cannot occur in theory  Examples  High quality mission-critical firmware detects as many errors as possible  and then handles or ignores them in a safe manner   Never write programs that rely on poorly-specified behavior  It is likely that such behavior might change drastically with unexpected hardware changes caused by radiation or EMI  The best way to ensure that your program is free from such crap is to use a coding standard like MISRA  together with a static analyser tool  This will also help with defensive programming and with weeding out bugs  why would you not want to detect bugs in any kind of application     IMPORTANT  Don t implement any reliance of the default values of static storage duration variables  That is  don t trust the default contents of the  data or  bss  There could be any amount of time between the point of initialization to the point where the variable is actually used  there could have been plenty of time for the RAM to get corrupted  Instead  write the program so that all such variables are set from NVM in run-time  just before the time when such a variable is used for the first time  In practice this means that if a variable is declared at file scope or as static  you should never use   to initialize it  or you could  but it is pointless  because you cannot rely on the value anyhow   Always set it in run-time  just before use  If it is possible to repeatedly update such variables from NVM  then do so  Similarly in C    don t rely on constructors for static storage duration variables  Have the constructor s  call a public  quot set-up quot  routine  which you can also call later on in run-time  straight from the caller application  If possible  remove the  quot copy-down quot  start-up code that initializes  data and  bss  and calls C   constructors  entirely  so that you get linker errors if you write code relying on such  Many compilers have the option to skip this  usually called  quot minimal fast start-up quot  or similar  This means that any external libraries have to be checked so that they don t contain any such reliance   Implement and define a safe state for the program  to where you will revert in case of critical errors   Implementing an error report error log system is always helpful

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How about running many instances of your application  If crashes are due to random memory bit changes  chances are some of your app instances will make it through and produce accurate results  It s probably quite easy  for someone with statistical background  to calculate how many instances do you need given bit flop probability to achieve as tiny overall error as you wish

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NASA has a paper on radiation-hardened software  It describes three main tasks    Regular monitoring of memory for errors then scrubbing out those errors  robust error recovery mechanisms  and the ability to reconfigure if something no longer works    Note that the memory scan rate should be frequent enough that multi-bit errors rarely occur  as most ECC memory can recover from single-bit errors  not multi-bit errors   Robust error recovery includes control flow transfer  typically restarting a process at a point before the error   resource release  and data restoration   Their main recommendation for data restoration is to avoid the need for it  through having intermediate data be treated as temporary  so that restarting before the error also rolls back the data to a reliable state  This sounds similar to the concept of  transactions  in databases   They discuss techniques particularly suitable for object-oriented languages such as C    For example   Software-based ECCs for contiguous memory objects Programming by Contract  verifying preconditions and postconditions  then checking the object to verify it is still in a valid state    And  it just so happens  NASA has used C   for major projects such as the Mars Rover      C   class abstraction and encapsulation enabled rapid development and testing among multiple projects and developers    They avoided certain C   features that could create problems    Exceptions Templates Iostream  no console  Multiple inheritance Operator overloading  other than new and delete  Dynamic allocation  used a dedicated memory pool and placement new to avoid the possibility of system heap corruption

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I ve really read a lot of great answers   Here is my 2 cent  build a statistical model of the memory register abnormality  by writing a software to check the memory or to perform frequent register comparisons  Further  create an emulator  in the style of a virtual machine where you can experiment with the issue  I guess if you vary junction size  clock frequency  vendor  casing  etc would observe a different behavior   Even our desktop PC memory has a certain rate of failure  which however doesn t impair the day to day work

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What could help you is a watchdog  Watchdogs were used extensively in industrial computing in the 1980s  Hardware failures were much more common then - another answer also refers to that period   A watchdog is a combined hardware software feature  The hardware is a simple counter that counts down from a number  say 1023  to zero  TTL or other logic could be used   The software has been designed as such that one routine monitors the correct operation of all essential systems  If this routine completes correctly   finds the computer running fine  it sets the counter back to 1023   The overall design is so that under normal circumstances  the software prevents that the hardware counter will reach zero  In case the counter reaches zero  the hardware of the counter performs its one-and-only task and resets the entire system  From a counter perspective  zero equals 1024 and the counter continues counting down again   This watchdog ensures that the attached computer is restarted in a many  many cases of failure  I must admit that I m not familiar with hardware that is able to perform such a function on today s computers  Interfaces to external hardware are now a lot more complex than they used to be   An inherent disadvantage of the watchdog is that the system is not available from the time it fails until the watchdog counter reaches zero   reboot time  While that time is generally much shorter than any external or human intervention  the supported equipment will need to be able to proceed without computer control for that timeframe

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Firstly  design your application around failure  Ensure that as part of normal flow operation  it expects to reset  depending on your application and the type of failure either soft or hard   This is hard to get perfect  critical operations that require some degree of transactionality may need to be checked and tweaked at an assembly level so that an interruption at a key point cannot result in inconsistent external commands  Fail fast as soon as any unrecoverable memory corruption or control flow deviation is detected  Log failures if possible   Secondly  where possible  correct corruption and continue  This means checksumming and fixing constant tables  and program code if you can  often  perhaps before each major operation or on a timed interrupt  and storing variables in structures that autocorrect  again before each major op or on a timed interrupt take a majority vote from 3 and correct if is a single deviation   Log corrections if possible   Thirdly  test failure  Set up a repeatable test environment that flips bits in memory psuedo-randomly  This will allow you to replicate corruption situations and help design your application around them

[c++] Compiling an application for use in highly radioactive environments

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