Short description of the scoping rules

Question

What exactly are the Python scoping rules   If I have some code   code1 class Foo     code2    def spam            code3       for code4           code5        x     Where is x found   Some possible choices include the list below    In the enclosing source file In the class namespace In the function definition In the for loop index variable Inside the for loop   Also there is the context during execution  when the function spam is passed somewhere else  And maybe lambda functions pass a bit differently   There must be a simple reference or algorithm somewhere   It s a confusing world for intermediate Python programmers

User · Answer

Python resolves your variables with -- generally -- three namespaces available.

At any time during execution, there are at least three nested scopes whose namespaces are directly accessible: the innermost scope, which is searched first, contains the local names; the namespaces of any enclosing functions, which are searched starting with the nearest enclosing scope; the middle scope, searched next, contains the current module's global names; and the outermost scope (searched last) is the namespace containing built-in names.

There are two functions: globals and locals which show you the contents two of these namespaces.

Namespaces are created by packages, modules, classes, object construction and functions. There aren't any other flavors of namespaces.

In this case, the call to a function named x has to be resolved in the local name space or the global namespace.

Local in this case, is the body of the method function Foo.spam.

Global is -- well -- global.

The rule is to search the nested local spaces created by method functions (and nested function definitions), then search global. That's it.

There are no other scopes. The for statement (and other compound statements like if and try) don't create new nested scopes. Only definitions (packages, modules, functions, classes and object instances.)

Inside a class definition, the names are part of the class namespace. code2, for instance, must be qualified by the class name. Generally Foo.code2. However, self.code2 will also work because Python objects look at the containing class as a fall-back.

An object (an instance of a class) has instance variables. These names are in the object's namespace. They must be qualified by the object. (variable.instance.)

From within a class method, you have locals and globals. You say self.variable to pick the instance as the namespace. You'll note that self is an argument to every class member function, making it part of the local namespace.

See Python Scope Rules, Python Scope, Variable Scope.

User · Answer

Where is x found    x is not found as you haven t defined it   -  It could be found in code1  global  or code3  local  if you put it there   code2  class members  aren t visible to code inside methods of the same class     you would usually access them using self  code4 code5  loops  live in the same scope as code3  so if you wrote to x in there you would be changing the x instance defined in code3  not making a new x   Python is statically scoped  so if you pass    spam    to another function spam will still have access to globals in the module it came from  defined in code1   and any other containing scopes  see below   code2 members would again be accessed through self   lambda is no different to def  If you have a lambda used inside a function  it s the same as defining a nested function  In Python 2 2 onwards  nested scopes are available  In this case you can bind x at any level of function nesting and Python will pick up the innermost instance   x  0 def fun1        x  1     def fun2            x  2         def fun3                return x         return fun3       return fun2   print fun1    x  2 0   fun3 sees the instance x from the nearest containing scope  which is the function scope associated with fun2  But the other x instances  defined in fun1 and globally  are not affected   Before nested scopes     in Python pre-2 1  and in 2 1 unless you specifically ask for the feature using a from-future-import     fun1 and fun2 s scopes are not visible to fun3  so S Lott s answer holds and you would get the global x   0 0

User · Answer

The scoping rules for Python 2 x have been outlined already in other answers  The only thing I would add is that in Python 3 0  there is also the concept of a non-local scope  indicated by the  nonlocal  keyword   This allows you to access outer scopes directly  and opens up the ability to do some neat tricks  including lexical closures  without ugly hacks involving mutable objects    EDIT  Here s the PEP with more information on this

User · Answer

Where is x found    x is not found as you haven t defined it   -  It could be found in code1  global  or code3  local  if you put it there   code2  class members  aren t visible to code inside methods of the same class     you would usually access them using self  code4 code5  loops  live in the same scope as code3  so if you wrote to x in there you would be changing the x instance defined in code3  not making a new x   Python is statically scoped  so if you pass    spam    to another function spam will still have access to globals in the module it came from  defined in code1   and any other containing scopes  see below   code2 members would again be accessed through self   lambda is no different to def  If you have a lambda used inside a function  it s the same as defining a nested function  In Python 2 2 onwards  nested scopes are available  In this case you can bind x at any level of function nesting and Python will pick up the innermost instance   x  0 def fun1        x  1     def fun2            x  2         def fun3                return x         return fun3       return fun2   print fun1    x  2 0   fun3 sees the instance x from the nearest containing scope  which is the function scope associated with fun2  But the other x instances  defined in fun1 and globally  are not affected   Before nested scopes     in Python pre-2 1  and in 2 1 unless you specifically ask for the feature using a from-future-import     fun1 and fun2 s scopes are not visible to fun3  so S Lott s answer holds and you would get the global x   0 0

User · Answer

The scoping rules for Python 2 x have been outlined already in other answers  The only thing I would add is that in Python 3 0  there is also the concept of a non-local scope  indicated by the  nonlocal  keyword   This allows you to access outer scopes directly  and opens up the ability to do some neat tricks  including lexical closures  without ugly hacks involving mutable objects    EDIT  Here s the PEP with more information on this

User · Answer

Essentially  the only thing in Python that introduces a new scope is a function definition   Classes are a bit of a special case in that anything defined directly in the body is placed in the class s namespace  but they are not directly accessible from within the methods  or nested classes  they contain   In your example there are only 3 scopes where x will be searched in    spam s scope - containing everything defined in code3 and code5  as well as code4  your loop variable  The global scope - containing everything defined in code1  as well as Foo  and whatever changes after it  The builtins namespace   A bit of a special case - this contains the various Python builtin functions and types such as len   and str    Generally this shouldn t be modified by any user code  so expect it to contain the standard functions and nothing else    More scopes only appear when you introduce a nested function  or lambda  into the picture  These will behave pretty much as you d expect however   The nested function can access everything in the local scope  as well as anything in the enclosing function s scope  eg   def foo        x 4     def bar            print x    Accesses x from foo s scope     bar      Prints 4     x 5     bar      Prints 5   Restrictions   Variables in scopes other than the local function s variables can be accessed  but can t be rebound to new parameters without further syntax   Instead  assignment will create a new local variable instead of affecting the variable in the parent scope   For example   global var1      global var2   1  def func          This is OK  It s just accessing  not rebinding     global var1 append 4          This won t affect global var2  Instead it creates a new variable     global var2   2       local1   4     def embedded func              Again  this doen t affect func s local1 variable   It creates a            new local variable also called local1 instead          local1   5         print local1      embedded func     Prints 5     print local1      Prints 4   In order to actually modify the bindings of global variables from within a function scope  you need to specify that the variable is global with the global keyword   Eg   global var   4 def change global        global global var     global var   global var   1   Currently there is no way to do the same for variables in enclosing function scopes  but Python 3 introduces a new keyword   nonlocal  which will act in a similar way to global  but for nested function scopes

User · Answer

Essentially  the only thing in Python that introduces a new scope is a function definition   Classes are a bit of a special case in that anything defined directly in the body is placed in the class s namespace  but they are not directly accessible from within the methods  or nested classes  they contain   In your example there are only 3 scopes where x will be searched in    spam s scope - containing everything defined in code3 and code5  as well as code4  your loop variable  The global scope - containing everything defined in code1  as well as Foo  and whatever changes after it  The builtins namespace   A bit of a special case - this contains the various Python builtin functions and types such as len   and str    Generally this shouldn t be modified by any user code  so expect it to contain the standard functions and nothing else    More scopes only appear when you introduce a nested function  or lambda  into the picture  These will behave pretty much as you d expect however   The nested function can access everything in the local scope  as well as anything in the enclosing function s scope  eg   def foo        x 4     def bar            print x    Accesses x from foo s scope     bar      Prints 4     x 5     bar      Prints 5   Restrictions   Variables in scopes other than the local function s variables can be accessed  but can t be rebound to new parameters without further syntax   Instead  assignment will create a new local variable instead of affecting the variable in the parent scope   For example   global var1      global var2   1  def func          This is OK  It s just accessing  not rebinding     global var1 append 4          This won t affect global var2  Instead it creates a new variable     global var2   2       local1   4     def embedded func              Again  this doen t affect func s local1 variable   It creates a            new local variable also called local1 instead          local1   5         print local1      embedded func     Prints 5     print local1      Prints 4   In order to actually modify the bindings of global variables from within a function scope  you need to specify that the variable is global with the global keyword   Eg   global var   4 def change global        global global var     global var   global var   1   Currently there is no way to do the same for variables in enclosing function scopes  but Python 3 introduces a new keyword   nonlocal  which will act in a similar way to global  but for nested function scopes

User · Answer

Where is x found    x is not found as you haven t defined it   -  It could be found in code1  global  or code3  local  if you put it there   code2  class members  aren t visible to code inside methods of the same class     you would usually access them using self  code4 code5  loops  live in the same scope as code3  so if you wrote to x in there you would be changing the x instance defined in code3  not making a new x   Python is statically scoped  so if you pass    spam    to another function spam will still have access to globals in the module it came from  defined in code1   and any other containing scopes  see below   code2 members would again be accessed through self   lambda is no different to def  If you have a lambda used inside a function  it s the same as defining a nested function  In Python 2 2 onwards  nested scopes are available  In this case you can bind x at any level of function nesting and Python will pick up the innermost instance   x  0 def fun1        x  1     def fun2            x  2         def fun3                return x         return fun3       return fun2   print fun1    x  2 0   fun3 sees the instance x from the nearest containing scope  which is the function scope associated with fun2  But the other x instances  defined in fun1 and globally  are not affected   Before nested scopes     in Python pre-2 1  and in 2 1 unless you specifically ask for the feature using a from-future-import     fun1 and fun2 s scopes are not visible to fun3  so S Lott s answer holds and you would get the global x   0 0

User · Answer

The scoping rules for Python 2 x have been outlined already in other answers  The only thing I would add is that in Python 3 0  there is also the concept of a non-local scope  indicated by the  nonlocal  keyword   This allows you to access outer scopes directly  and opens up the ability to do some neat tricks  including lexical closures  without ugly hacks involving mutable objects    EDIT  Here s the PEP with more information on this

User · Answer

Where is x found    x is not found as you haven t defined it   -  It could be found in code1  global  or code3  local  if you put it there   code2  class members  aren t visible to code inside methods of the same class     you would usually access them using self  code4 code5  loops  live in the same scope as code3  so if you wrote to x in there you would be changing the x instance defined in code3  not making a new x   Python is statically scoped  so if you pass    spam    to another function spam will still have access to globals in the module it came from  defined in code1   and any other containing scopes  see below   code2 members would again be accessed through self   lambda is no different to def  If you have a lambda used inside a function  it s the same as defining a nested function  In Python 2 2 onwards  nested scopes are available  In this case you can bind x at any level of function nesting and Python will pick up the innermost instance   x  0 def fun1        x  1     def fun2            x  2         def fun3                return x         return fun3       return fun2   print fun1    x  2 0   fun3 sees the instance x from the nearest containing scope  which is the function scope associated with fun2  But the other x instances  defined in fun1 and globally  are not affected   Before nested scopes     in Python pre-2 1  and in 2 1 unless you specifically ask for the feature using a from-future-import     fun1 and fun2 s scopes are not visible to fun3  so S Lott s answer holds and you would get the global x   0 0

User · Answer

Essentially  the only thing in Python that introduces a new scope is a function definition   Classes are a bit of a special case in that anything defined directly in the body is placed in the class s namespace  but they are not directly accessible from within the methods  or nested classes  they contain   In your example there are only 3 scopes where x will be searched in    spam s scope - containing everything defined in code3 and code5  as well as code4  your loop variable  The global scope - containing everything defined in code1  as well as Foo  and whatever changes after it  The builtins namespace   A bit of a special case - this contains the various Python builtin functions and types such as len   and str    Generally this shouldn t be modified by any user code  so expect it to contain the standard functions and nothing else    More scopes only appear when you introduce a nested function  or lambda  into the picture  These will behave pretty much as you d expect however   The nested function can access everything in the local scope  as well as anything in the enclosing function s scope  eg   def foo        x 4     def bar            print x    Accesses x from foo s scope     bar      Prints 4     x 5     bar      Prints 5   Restrictions   Variables in scopes other than the local function s variables can be accessed  but can t be rebound to new parameters without further syntax   Instead  assignment will create a new local variable instead of affecting the variable in the parent scope   For example   global var1      global var2   1  def func          This is OK  It s just accessing  not rebinding     global var1 append 4          This won t affect global var2  Instead it creates a new variable     global var2   2       local1   4     def embedded func              Again  this doen t affect func s local1 variable   It creates a            new local variable also called local1 instead          local1   5         print local1      embedded func     Prints 5     print local1      Prints 4   In order to actually modify the bindings of global variables from within a function scope  you need to specify that the variable is global with the global keyword   Eg   global var   4 def change global        global global var     global var   global var   1   Currently there is no way to do the same for variables in enclosing function scopes  but Python 3 introduces a new keyword   nonlocal  which will act in a similar way to global  but for nested function scopes

User · Answer

There was no thorough answer concerning Python3 time  so I made an answer here  Most of what is described here is detailed in the 4 2 2 Resolution of names of the Python 3 documentation   As provided in other answers  there are 4 basic scopes  the LEGB  for Local  Enclosing  Global and Builtin  In addition to those  there is a special scope  the class body  which does not comprise an enclosing scope for methods defined within the class  any assignments within the class body make the variable from there on be bound in the class body   Especially  no block statement  besides def and class  create a variable scope  In Python 2 a list comprehension does not create a variable scope  however in Python 3 the loop variable within list comprehensions is created in a new scope   To demonstrate the peculiarities of the class body  x   0 class X object       y   x     x   x   1   x is now a variable     z   x      def method self           print self x    - gt  1         print x         - gt  0  the global x         print y         - gt  NameError  global name  y  is not defined  inst   X   print inst x  inst y  inst z  x    - gt   1  0  1  0    Thus unlike in function body  you can reassign the variable to the same name in class body  to get a class variable with the same name  further lookups on this name resolve to the class variable instead     One of the greater surprises to many newcomers to Python is that a for loop does not create a variable scope  In Python 2 the list comprehensions do not create a scope either  while generators and dict comprehensions do   Instead they leak the value in the function or the global scope    gt  gt  gt    i for i in range 5     gt  gt  gt  i 4   The comprehensions can be used as a cunning  or awful if you will  way to make modifiable variables within lambda expressions in Python 2 - a lambda expression does create a variable scope  like the def statement would  but within lambda no statements are allowed  Assignment being a statement in Python means that no variable assignments in lambda are allowed  but a list comprehension is an expression     This behaviour has been fixed in Python 3 - no comprehension expressions or generators leak variables     The global really means the module scope  the main python module is the   main    all imported modules are accessible through the sys modules variable  to get access to   main   one can use sys modules    main      or import   main    it is perfectly acceptable to access and assign attributes there  they will show up as variables in the global scope of the main module     If a name is ever assigned to in the current scope  except in the class scope   it will be considered belonging to that scope  otherwise it will be considered to belonging to any enclosing scope that assigns to the variable  it might not be assigned yet  or not at all   or finally the global scope  If the variable is considered local  but it is not set yet  or has been deleted  reading the variable value will result in UnboundLocalError  which is a subclass of NameError   x   5 def foobar        print x     causes UnboundLocalError      x    1      because assignment here makes x a local variable within the function    call the function foobar     The scope can declare that it explicitly wants to modify the global  module scope  variable  with the global keyword   x   5 def foobar        global x     print x      x    1  foobar     - gt  5 print x    - gt  6   This also is possible even if it was shadowed in enclosing scope   x   5 y   13 def make closure        x   42     y   911     def func            global x   sees the global value         print x  y          x    1      return func  func   make closure   func          - gt  5 911 print x  y    - gt  6 13   In python 2 there is no easy way to modify the value in the enclosing scope  usually this is simulated by having a mutable value  such as a list with length of 1   def make closure        value    0      def get next value            value 0     1         return value 0       return get next value  get next   make closure   print get next      - gt  1 print get next      - gt  2   However in python 3  the nonlocal comes to rescue   def make closure        value   0     def get next value            nonlocal value         value    1         return value     return get next value  get next   make closure     identical behavior to the previous example    The nonlocal documentation says that     Names listed in a nonlocal statement  unlike those listed in a global statement  must refer to pre-existing bindings in an enclosing scope  the scope in which a new binding should be created cannot be determined unambiguously     i e  nonlocal always refers to the innermost outer non-global scope where the name has been bound  i e  assigned to  including used as the for target variable  in the with clause  or as a function parameter      Any variable that is not deemed to be local to the current scope  or any enclosing scope  is a global variable  A global name is looked up in the module global dictionary  if not found  the global is then looked up from the builtins module  the name of the module was changed from python 2 to python 3  in python 2 it was   builtin   and in python 3 it is now called builtins  If you assign to an attribute of builtins module  it will be visible thereafter to any module as a readable global variable  unless that module shadows them with its own global variable with the same name     Reading the builtin module can also be useful  suppose that you want the python 3 style print function in some parts of file  but other parts of file still use the print statement  In Python 2 6-2 7 you can get hold of the Python 3 print function with   import   builtin    print3     builtin     dict    print     The from   future   import print function actually does not import the print function anywhere in Python 2 - instead it just disables the parsing rules for print statement in the current module  handling print like any other variable identifier  and thus allowing the print the function be looked up in the builtins

User · Answer

A slightly more complete example of scope   from   future   import print function    for python 2 support  x   100 print  1  Global x    x  class Test object       y   x     print  2  Enclosed y    y      x   x   1     print  3  Enclosed x    x       def method self           print  4  Enclosed self x   self x          print  5  Global x   x          try              print y          except NameError as e              print  6    e       def method local ref self           try              print x          except UnboundLocalError as e              print  7    e          x   200   causing 7 because has same name         print  8  Local x   x   inst   Test   inst method   inst method local ref     output   1  Global x  100 2  Enclosed y  100 3  Enclosed x  101 4  Enclosed self x 101 5  Global x 100 6  global name  y  is not defined 7  local variable  x  referenced before assignment 8  Local x 200

User · Answer

The Python name resolution only knows the following kinds of scope   builtins scope which provides the Builtin Functions  such as print  int  or zip  module global scope which is always the top-level of the current module  three user-defined scopes that can be nested into each other  namely  function closure scope  from any enclosing def block  lambda expression or comprehension  function local scope  inside a def block  lambda expression or comprehension  class scope  inside a class block     Notably  other constructs such as if  for  or with statements do not have their own scope  The scoping TLDR  The lookup of a name begins at the scope in which the name is used  then any enclosing scopes  excluding class scopes   to the module globals  and finally the builtins     the first match in this search order is used  The assignment to a scope is by default to the current scope     the special forms nonlocal and global must be used to assign to a name from an outer scope  Finally  comprehensions and generator expressions as well as    asignment expressions have one special rule when combined   Nested Scopes and Name Resolution These different scopes build a hierarchy  with builtins then global always forming the base  and closures  locals and class scope being nested as lexically defined  That is  only the nesting in the source code matters  not for example the call stack  print  quot builtins are available without definition quot    some global    quot 1 quot     global variables are at module scope  def outer function        some closure    quot 3 1 quot     locals and closure are defined the same  at function scope     some local    quot 3 2 quot       a variable becomes a closure if a nested scope uses it      class InnerClass           some classvar    quot 3 3 quot      class variables exist  only  at class scope           def nested function self                some local    quot 3 2 quot      locals can replace outer names              print some closure     closures are always readable     return InnerClass  Even though class creates a scope and may have nested classes  functions and comprehensions  the names of the class scope are not visible to enclosed scopes  This creates the following hierarchy    builtins            print           globals             some global        outer function      some local  some closure          InnerClass          some classvar          inner function      some local   Name resolution always starts at the current scope in which a name is accessed  then goes up the hierarchy until a match is found  For example  looking up some local inside outer function and inner function starts at the respective function - and immediately finds the some local defined in outer function and inner function  respectively  When a name is not local  it is fetched from the nearest enclosing scope that defines it     looking up some closure and print inside inner function searches until outer function and builtins  respectively   Scope Declarations and Name Binding By default  a name belongs to any scope in which it is bound to a value  Binding the same name again in an inner scope creates a new variable with the same name - for example  some local exists separately in both outer function and inner function  As far as scoping is concerned  binding includes any statement that sets the value of a name     assignment statements  but also the iteration variable of a for loop  or the name of a with context manager  Notably  del also counts as name binding  When a name must refer to an outer variable and be bound in an inner scope  the name must be declared as not local  Separate declarations exists for the different kinds of enclosing scopes  nonlocal always refers to the nearest closure  and global always refers to a global name  Notably  nonlocal never refers to a global name and global ignores all closures of the same name  There is no declaration to refer to the builtin scope   some global    quot 1 quot   def outer function        some closure    quot 3 2 quot      some global    quot this is ignored by a nested global declaration quot           def inner function            global some global       declare variable from global scope         nonlocal some closure    declare variable from enclosing scope         message    quot  bound by an inner scope quot          some global   some global   message         some closure   some closure   message     return inner function  Of note is that function local and nonlocal are resolved at compile time  A nonlocal name must exist in some outer scope  In contrast  a global name can be defined dynamically and may be added or removed from the global scope at any time   Comprehensions and Assignment Expressions The scoping rules of list  set and dict comprehensions and generator expressions are almost the same as for functions  Likewise  the scoping rules for assignment expressions are almost the same as for regular name binding  The scope of comprehensions and generator expressions is of the same kind as function scope  All names bound in the scope  namely the iteration variables  are locals or closures to the comprehensions generator and nested scopes  All names  including iterables  are resolved using name resolution as applicable inside functions  some global    quot global quot   def outer function        some closure    quot closure quot      return                new function-like scope started by comprehension         comp local        names resolved using regular name resolution         for comp local    iteration targets are local         in  quot iterable quot          if comp local in some global and comp local in some global        An    assignment expression works on the nearest function  class or global scope  Notably  if the target of an assignment expression has been declared nonlocal or global in the nearest scope  the assignment expression honors this like a regular assignment  print some global     quot global quot    def outer function        print some closure     quot closure quot    However  an assignment expression inside a comprehension generator works on the nearest enclosing scope of the comprehension generator  not the scope of the comprehension generator itself  When several comprehensions generators are nested  the nearest function or global scope is used  Since the comprehension generator scope can read closures and global variables  the assignment variable is readable in the comprehension as well  Assigning from a comprehension to a class scope is not valid  print some global     quot global quot    def outer function        print some closure     quot closure quot       steps               v write to variable in containing scope          some closure    some closure   comp local                              read from variable in containing scope         for comp local in some global           return some closure  steps  While the iteration variable is local to the comprehension in which it is bound  the target of the assignment expression does not create a local variable and is read from the outer scope    builtins            print           globals             some global        outer function      some closure           lt listcomp gt           comp local

User · Answer

Essentially  the only thing in Python that introduces a new scope is a function definition   Classes are a bit of a special case in that anything defined directly in the body is placed in the class s namespace  but they are not directly accessible from within the methods  or nested classes  they contain   In your example there are only 3 scopes where x will be searched in    spam s scope - containing everything defined in code3 and code5  as well as code4  your loop variable  The global scope - containing everything defined in code1  as well as Foo  and whatever changes after it  The builtins namespace   A bit of a special case - this contains the various Python builtin functions and types such as len   and str    Generally this shouldn t be modified by any user code  so expect it to contain the standard functions and nothing else    More scopes only appear when you introduce a nested function  or lambda  into the picture  These will behave pretty much as you d expect however   The nested function can access everything in the local scope  as well as anything in the enclosing function s scope  eg   def foo        x 4     def bar            print x    Accesses x from foo s scope     bar      Prints 4     x 5     bar      Prints 5   Restrictions   Variables in scopes other than the local function s variables can be accessed  but can t be rebound to new parameters without further syntax   Instead  assignment will create a new local variable instead of affecting the variable in the parent scope   For example   global var1      global var2   1  def func          This is OK  It s just accessing  not rebinding     global var1 append 4          This won t affect global var2  Instead it creates a new variable     global var2   2       local1   4     def embedded func              Again  this doen t affect func s local1 variable   It creates a            new local variable also called local1 instead          local1   5         print local1      embedded func     Prints 5     print local1      Prints 4   In order to actually modify the bindings of global variables from within a function scope  you need to specify that the variable is global with the global keyword   Eg   global var   4 def change global        global global var     global var   global var   1   Currently there is no way to do the same for variables in enclosing function scopes  but Python 3 introduces a new keyword   nonlocal  which will act in a similar way to global  but for nested function scopes

User · Answer

Actually  a concise rule for Python Scope resolution  from Learning Python  3rd  Ed    These rules are specific to variable names  not attributes  If you reference it without a period  these rules apply    LEGB Rule   Local     Names assigned in any way within a function  def or lambda   and not declared global in that function Enclosing-function     Names assigned in the local scope of any and all statically enclosing functions  def or lambda   from inner to outer Global  module      Names assigned at the top-level of a module file  or by executing a global statement in a def within the file Built-in  Python      Names preassigned in the built-in names module  open  range  SyntaxError  etc   So  in the case of  code1 class Foo      code2     def spam            code3         for code4              code5             x     The for loop does not have its own namespace  In LEGB order  the scopes would be    L  Local in def spam  in code3  code4  and code5  E  Any enclosing functions  if the whole example were in another def  G  Were there any x declared globally in the module  in code1   B  Any builtin x in Python    x will never be found in code2  even in cases where you might expect it would  see Antti s answer or here

User · Answer

The scoping rules for Python 2 x have been outlined already in other answers  The only thing I would add is that in Python 3 0  there is also the concept of a non-local scope  indicated by the  nonlocal  keyword   This allows you to access outer scopes directly  and opens up the ability to do some neat tricks  including lexical closures  without ugly hacks involving mutable objects    EDIT  Here s the PEP with more information on this

User · Answer

In Python       any variable that is assigned a value is local to the block in which   the assignment appears    If a variable can t be found in the current scope  please refer to the LEGB order

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There was no thorough answer concerning Python3 time  so I made an answer here  Most of what is described here is detailed in the 4 2 2 Resolution of names of the Python 3 documentation   As provided in other answers  there are 4 basic scopes  the LEGB  for Local  Enclosing  Global and Builtin  In addition to those  there is a special scope  the class body  which does not comprise an enclosing scope for methods defined within the class  any assignments within the class body make the variable from there on be bound in the class body   Especially  no block statement  besides def and class  create a variable scope  In Python 2 a list comprehension does not create a variable scope  however in Python 3 the loop variable within list comprehensions is created in a new scope   To demonstrate the peculiarities of the class body  x   0 class X object       y   x     x   x   1   x is now a variable     z   x      def method self           print self x    - gt  1         print x         - gt  0  the global x         print y         - gt  NameError  global name  y  is not defined  inst   X   print inst x  inst y  inst z  x    - gt   1  0  1  0    Thus unlike in function body  you can reassign the variable to the same name in class body  to get a class variable with the same name  further lookups on this name resolve to the class variable instead     One of the greater surprises to many newcomers to Python is that a for loop does not create a variable scope  In Python 2 the list comprehensions do not create a scope either  while generators and dict comprehensions do   Instead they leak the value in the function or the global scope    gt  gt  gt    i for i in range 5     gt  gt  gt  i 4   The comprehensions can be used as a cunning  or awful if you will  way to make modifiable variables within lambda expressions in Python 2 - a lambda expression does create a variable scope  like the def statement would  but within lambda no statements are allowed  Assignment being a statement in Python means that no variable assignments in lambda are allowed  but a list comprehension is an expression     This behaviour has been fixed in Python 3 - no comprehension expressions or generators leak variables     The global really means the module scope  the main python module is the   main    all imported modules are accessible through the sys modules variable  to get access to   main   one can use sys modules    main      or import   main    it is perfectly acceptable to access and assign attributes there  they will show up as variables in the global scope of the main module     If a name is ever assigned to in the current scope  except in the class scope   it will be considered belonging to that scope  otherwise it will be considered to belonging to any enclosing scope that assigns to the variable  it might not be assigned yet  or not at all   or finally the global scope  If the variable is considered local  but it is not set yet  or has been deleted  reading the variable value will result in UnboundLocalError  which is a subclass of NameError   x   5 def foobar        print x     causes UnboundLocalError      x    1      because assignment here makes x a local variable within the function    call the function foobar     The scope can declare that it explicitly wants to modify the global  module scope  variable  with the global keyword   x   5 def foobar        global x     print x      x    1  foobar     - gt  5 print x    - gt  6   This also is possible even if it was shadowed in enclosing scope   x   5 y   13 def make closure        x   42     y   911     def func            global x   sees the global value         print x  y          x    1      return func  func   make closure   func          - gt  5 911 print x  y    - gt  6 13   In python 2 there is no easy way to modify the value in the enclosing scope  usually this is simulated by having a mutable value  such as a list with length of 1   def make closure        value    0      def get next value            value 0     1         return value 0       return get next value  get next   make closure   print get next      - gt  1 print get next      - gt  2   However in python 3  the nonlocal comes to rescue   def make closure        value   0     def get next value            nonlocal value         value    1         return value     return get next value  get next   make closure     identical behavior to the previous example    The nonlocal documentation says that     Names listed in a nonlocal statement  unlike those listed in a global statement  must refer to pre-existing bindings in an enclosing scope  the scope in which a new binding should be created cannot be determined unambiguously     i e  nonlocal always refers to the innermost outer non-global scope where the name has been bound  i e  assigned to  including used as the for target variable  in the with clause  or as a function parameter      Any variable that is not deemed to be local to the current scope  or any enclosing scope  is a global variable  A global name is looked up in the module global dictionary  if not found  the global is then looked up from the builtins module  the name of the module was changed from python 2 to python 3  in python 2 it was   builtin   and in python 3 it is now called builtins  If you assign to an attribute of builtins module  it will be visible thereafter to any module as a readable global variable  unless that module shadows them with its own global variable with the same name     Reading the builtin module can also be useful  suppose that you want the python 3 style print function in some parts of file  but other parts of file still use the print statement  In Python 2 6-2 7 you can get hold of the Python 3 print function with   import   builtin    print3     builtin     dict    print     The from   future   import print function actually does not import the print function anywhere in Python 2 - instead it just disables the parsing rules for print statement in the current module  handling print like any other variable identifier  and thus allowing the print the function be looked up in the builtins

User · Answer

Python resolves your variables with -- generally -- three namespaces available.

At any time during execution, there are at least three nested scopes whose namespaces are directly accessible: the innermost scope, which is searched first, contains the local names; the namespaces of any enclosing functions, which are searched starting with the nearest enclosing scope; the middle scope, searched next, contains the current module's global names; and the outermost scope (searched last) is the namespace containing built-in names.

There are two functions: globals and locals which show you the contents two of these namespaces.

Namespaces are created by packages, modules, classes, object construction and functions. There aren't any other flavors of namespaces.

In this case, the call to a function named x has to be resolved in the local name space or the global namespace.

Local in this case, is the body of the method function Foo.spam.

Global is -- well -- global.

The rule is to search the nested local spaces created by method functions (and nested function definitions), then search global. That's it.

There are no other scopes. The for statement (and other compound statements like if and try) don't create new nested scopes. Only definitions (packages, modules, functions, classes and object instances.)

Inside a class definition, the names are part of the class namespace. code2, for instance, must be qualified by the class name. Generally Foo.code2. However, self.code2 will also work because Python objects look at the containing class as a fall-back.

An object (an instance of a class) has instance variables. These names are in the object's namespace. They must be qualified by the object. (variable.instance.)

From within a class method, you have locals and globals. You say self.variable to pick the instance as the namespace. You'll note that self is an argument to every class member function, making it part of the local namespace.

See Python Scope Rules, Python Scope, Variable Scope.

User · Answer

Actually  a concise rule for Python Scope resolution  from Learning Python  3rd  Ed    These rules are specific to variable names  not attributes  If you reference it without a period  these rules apply    LEGB Rule   Local     Names assigned in any way within a function  def or lambda   and not declared global in that function Enclosing-function     Names assigned in the local scope of any and all statically enclosing functions  def or lambda   from inner to outer Global  module      Names assigned at the top-level of a module file  or by executing a global statement in a def within the file Built-in  Python      Names preassigned in the built-in names module  open  range  SyntaxError  etc   So  in the case of  code1 class Foo      code2     def spam            code3         for code4              code5             x     The for loop does not have its own namespace  In LEGB order  the scopes would be    L  Local in def spam  in code3  code4  and code5  E  Any enclosing functions  if the whole example were in another def  G  Were there any x declared globally in the module  in code1   B  Any builtin x in Python    x will never be found in code2  even in cases where you might expect it would  see Antti s answer or here

User · Answer

Actually  a concise rule for Python Scope resolution  from Learning Python  3rd  Ed    These rules are specific to variable names  not attributes  If you reference it without a period  these rules apply    LEGB Rule   Local     Names assigned in any way within a function  def or lambda   and not declared global in that function Enclosing-function     Names assigned in the local scope of any and all statically enclosing functions  def or lambda   from inner to outer Global  module      Names assigned at the top-level of a module file  or by executing a global statement in a def within the file Built-in  Python      Names preassigned in the built-in names module  open  range  SyntaxError  etc   So  in the case of  code1 class Foo      code2     def spam            code3         for code4              code5             x     The for loop does not have its own namespace  In LEGB order  the scopes would be    L  Local in def spam  in code3  code4  and code5  E  Any enclosing functions  if the whole example were in another def  G  Were there any x declared globally in the module  in code1   B  Any builtin x in Python    x will never be found in code2  even in cases where you might expect it would  see Antti s answer or here

User · Answer

In Python       any variable that is assigned a value is local to the block in which   the assignment appears    If a variable can t be found in the current scope  please refer to the LEGB order

User · Answer

Python resolves your variables with -- generally -- three namespaces available.

At any time during execution, there are at least three nested scopes whose namespaces are directly accessible: the innermost scope, which is searched first, contains the local names; the namespaces of any enclosing functions, which are searched starting with the nearest enclosing scope; the middle scope, searched next, contains the current module's global names; and the outermost scope (searched last) is the namespace containing built-in names.

There are two functions: globals and locals which show you the contents two of these namespaces.

Namespaces are created by packages, modules, classes, object construction and functions. There aren't any other flavors of namespaces.

In this case, the call to a function named x has to be resolved in the local name space or the global namespace.

Local in this case, is the body of the method function Foo.spam.

Global is -- well -- global.

The rule is to search the nested local spaces created by method functions (and nested function definitions), then search global. That's it.

There are no other scopes. The for statement (and other compound statements like if and try) don't create new nested scopes. Only definitions (packages, modules, functions, classes and object instances.)

Inside a class definition, the names are part of the class namespace. code2, for instance, must be qualified by the class name. Generally Foo.code2. However, self.code2 will also work because Python objects look at the containing class as a fall-back.

An object (an instance of a class) has instance variables. These names are in the object's namespace. They must be qualified by the object. (variable.instance.)

From within a class method, you have locals and globals. You say self.variable to pick the instance as the namespace. You'll note that self is an argument to every class member function, making it part of the local namespace.

See Python Scope Rules, Python Scope, Variable Scope.

User · Answer

Python resolves your variables with -- generally -- three namespaces available.

At any time during execution, there are at least three nested scopes whose namespaces are directly accessible: the innermost scope, which is searched first, contains the local names; the namespaces of any enclosing functions, which are searched starting with the nearest enclosing scope; the middle scope, searched next, contains the current module's global names; and the outermost scope (searched last) is the namespace containing built-in names.

There are two functions: globals and locals which show you the contents two of these namespaces.

Namespaces are created by packages, modules, classes, object construction and functions. There aren't any other flavors of namespaces.

In this case, the call to a function named x has to be resolved in the local name space or the global namespace.

Local in this case, is the body of the method function Foo.spam.

Global is -- well -- global.

The rule is to search the nested local spaces created by method functions (and nested function definitions), then search global. That's it.

There are no other scopes. The for statement (and other compound statements like if and try) don't create new nested scopes. Only definitions (packages, modules, functions, classes and object instances.)

Inside a class definition, the names are part of the class namespace. code2, for instance, must be qualified by the class name. Generally Foo.code2. However, self.code2 will also work because Python objects look at the containing class as a fall-back.

An object (an instance of a class) has instance variables. These names are in the object's namespace. They must be qualified by the object. (variable.instance.)

From within a class method, you have locals and globals. You say self.variable to pick the instance as the namespace. You'll note that self is an argument to every class member function, making it part of the local namespace.

See Python Scope Rules, Python Scope, Variable Scope.

User · Answer

The Python name resolution only knows the following kinds of scope   builtins scope which provides the Builtin Functions  such as print  int  or zip  module global scope which is always the top-level of the current module  three user-defined scopes that can be nested into each other  namely  function closure scope  from any enclosing def block  lambda expression or comprehension  function local scope  inside a def block  lambda expression or comprehension  class scope  inside a class block     Notably  other constructs such as if  for  or with statements do not have their own scope  The scoping TLDR  The lookup of a name begins at the scope in which the name is used  then any enclosing scopes  excluding class scopes   to the module globals  and finally the builtins     the first match in this search order is used  The assignment to a scope is by default to the current scope     the special forms nonlocal and global must be used to assign to a name from an outer scope  Finally  comprehensions and generator expressions as well as    asignment expressions have one special rule when combined   Nested Scopes and Name Resolution These different scopes build a hierarchy  with builtins then global always forming the base  and closures  locals and class scope being nested as lexically defined  That is  only the nesting in the source code matters  not for example the call stack  print  quot builtins are available without definition quot    some global    quot 1 quot     global variables are at module scope  def outer function        some closure    quot 3 1 quot     locals and closure are defined the same  at function scope     some local    quot 3 2 quot       a variable becomes a closure if a nested scope uses it      class InnerClass           some classvar    quot 3 3 quot      class variables exist  only  at class scope           def nested function self                some local    quot 3 2 quot      locals can replace outer names              print some closure     closures are always readable     return InnerClass  Even though class creates a scope and may have nested classes  functions and comprehensions  the names of the class scope are not visible to enclosed scopes  This creates the following hierarchy    builtins            print           globals             some global        outer function      some local  some closure          InnerClass          some classvar          inner function      some local   Name resolution always starts at the current scope in which a name is accessed  then goes up the hierarchy until a match is found  For example  looking up some local inside outer function and inner function starts at the respective function - and immediately finds the some local defined in outer function and inner function  respectively  When a name is not local  it is fetched from the nearest enclosing scope that defines it     looking up some closure and print inside inner function searches until outer function and builtins  respectively   Scope Declarations and Name Binding By default  a name belongs to any scope in which it is bound to a value  Binding the same name again in an inner scope creates a new variable with the same name - for example  some local exists separately in both outer function and inner function  As far as scoping is concerned  binding includes any statement that sets the value of a name     assignment statements  but also the iteration variable of a for loop  or the name of a with context manager  Notably  del also counts as name binding  When a name must refer to an outer variable and be bound in an inner scope  the name must be declared as not local  Separate declarations exists for the different kinds of enclosing scopes  nonlocal always refers to the nearest closure  and global always refers to a global name  Notably  nonlocal never refers to a global name and global ignores all closures of the same name  There is no declaration to refer to the builtin scope   some global    quot 1 quot   def outer function        some closure    quot 3 2 quot      some global    quot this is ignored by a nested global declaration quot           def inner function            global some global       declare variable from global scope         nonlocal some closure    declare variable from enclosing scope         message    quot  bound by an inner scope quot          some global   some global   message         some closure   some closure   message     return inner function  Of note is that function local and nonlocal are resolved at compile time  A nonlocal name must exist in some outer scope  In contrast  a global name can be defined dynamically and may be added or removed from the global scope at any time   Comprehensions and Assignment Expressions The scoping rules of list  set and dict comprehensions and generator expressions are almost the same as for functions  Likewise  the scoping rules for assignment expressions are almost the same as for regular name binding  The scope of comprehensions and generator expressions is of the same kind as function scope  All names bound in the scope  namely the iteration variables  are locals or closures to the comprehensions generator and nested scopes  All names  including iterables  are resolved using name resolution as applicable inside functions  some global    quot global quot   def outer function        some closure    quot closure quot      return                new function-like scope started by comprehension         comp local        names resolved using regular name resolution         for comp local    iteration targets are local         in  quot iterable quot          if comp local in some global and comp local in some global        An    assignment expression works on the nearest function  class or global scope  Notably  if the target of an assignment expression has been declared nonlocal or global in the nearest scope  the assignment expression honors this like a regular assignment  print some global     quot global quot    def outer function        print some closure     quot closure quot    However  an assignment expression inside a comprehension generator works on the nearest enclosing scope of the comprehension generator  not the scope of the comprehension generator itself  When several comprehensions generators are nested  the nearest function or global scope is used  Since the comprehension generator scope can read closures and global variables  the assignment variable is readable in the comprehension as well  Assigning from a comprehension to a class scope is not valid  print some global     quot global quot    def outer function        print some closure     quot closure quot       steps               v write to variable in containing scope          some closure    some closure   comp local                              read from variable in containing scope         for comp local in some global           return some closure  steps  While the iteration variable is local to the comprehension in which it is bound  the target of the assignment expression does not create a local variable and is read from the outer scope    builtins            print           globals             some global        outer function      some closure           lt listcomp gt           comp local

User · Answer

A slightly more complete example of scope   from   future   import print function    for python 2 support  x   100 print  1  Global x    x  class Test object       y   x     print  2  Enclosed y    y      x   x   1     print  3  Enclosed x    x       def method self           print  4  Enclosed self x   self x          print  5  Global x   x          try              print y          except NameError as e              print  6    e       def method local ref self           try              print x          except UnboundLocalError as e              print  7    e          x   200   causing 7 because has same name         print  8  Local x   x   inst   Test   inst method   inst method local ref     output   1  Global x  100 2  Enclosed y  100 3  Enclosed x  101 4  Enclosed self x 101 5  Global x 100 6  global name  y  is not defined 7  local variable  x  referenced before assignment 8  Local x 200

User · Answer

Actually  a concise rule for Python Scope resolution  from Learning Python  3rd  Ed    These rules are specific to variable names  not attributes  If you reference it without a period  these rules apply    LEGB Rule   Local     Names assigned in any way within a function  def or lambda   and not declared global in that function Enclosing-function     Names assigned in the local scope of any and all statically enclosing functions  def or lambda   from inner to outer Global  module      Names assigned at the top-level of a module file  or by executing a global statement in a def within the file Built-in  Python      Names preassigned in the built-in names module  open  range  SyntaxError  etc   So  in the case of  code1 class Foo      code2     def spam            code3         for code4              code5             x     The for loop does not have its own namespace  In LEGB order  the scopes would be    L  Local in def spam  in code3  code4  and code5  E  Any enclosing functions  if the whole example were in another def  G  Were there any x declared globally in the module  in code1   B  Any builtin x in Python    x will never be found in code2  even in cases where you might expect it would  see Antti s answer or here

[python] Short description of the scoping rules?

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