Algorithm to compare two images

Question

Given two different image files  in whatever format I choose   I need to write a program to predict the chance if one being the illegal copy of another  The author of the copy may do stuff like rotating  making negative  or adding trivial details  as well as changing the dimension of the image    Do you know any algorithm to do this kind of job

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I believe if you re willing to apply the approach to every possible orientation and to negative versions  a good start to image recognition  with good reliability  is to use eigenfaces  http   en wikipedia org wiki Eigenface  Another idea would be to transform both images into vectors of their components  A good way to do this is to create a vector that operates in x y dimensions  x being the width of your image and y being the height   with the value for each dimension applying to the  x y  pixel value  Then run a variant of K-Nearest Neighbours with two categories  match and no match  If it s sufficiently close to the original image it will fit in the match category  if not then it won t   K Nearest Neighbours KNN  can be found here  there are other good explanations of it on the web too  http   en wikipedia org wiki K-nearest neighbor algorithm  The benefits of KNN is that the more variants you re comparing to the original image  the more accurate the algorithm becomes  The downside is you need a catalogue of images to train the system first

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This is just a suggestion  it might not work and I m prepared to be called on this   This will generate false positives  but hopefully not false negatives    Resize both of the images so that they are the same size  I assume that the ratios of widths to lengths are the same in both images   Compress a bitmap of both images with a lossless compression algorithm  e g  gzip   Find pairs of files that have similar file sizes  For instance  you could just sort every pair of files you have by how similar the file sizes are and retrieve the top X    As I said  this will definitely generate false positives  but hopefully not false negatives  You can implement this in five minutes  whereas the Porikil et  al  would probably require extensive work

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In the form described by you  the problem is tough  Do you consider copy  paste of part of the image into another larger image as a copy   etc   If you take a step-back  this is easier to solve if you watermark the master images   You will need to use a watermarking scheme to embed a code into the image  To take a step back  as opposed to some of the low-level approaches  edge detection etc  suggested by some folks  a watermarking method is superior because   It is resistant to Signal processing attacks   Signal enhancement     sharpening  contrast  etc    Filtering     median  low pass  high pass  etc    Additive noise     Gaussian  uniform  etc    Lossy compression     JPEG  MPEG  etc   It is resistant to Geometric attacks   Affine transforms   Data reduction     cropping  clipping  etc    Random local distortions   Warping  Do some research on watermarking algorithms and you will be on the right path to solving your problem    Note  You can benchmark you method using the STIRMARK dataset  It is an accepted standard for this type of application

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If you re running Linux I would suggest two tools   align image stack from package hugin-tools - is a commandline program that can automatically correct rotation  scaling  and other distortions  it s mostly intended for compositing HDR photography  but works for video frames and other documents too   More information  http   hugin sourceforge net docs manual Align image stack html  compare from package imagemagick - a program that can find and count the amount of different pixels in two images  Here s a neat tutorial  http   www imagemagick org Usage compare   uising the -fuzz N  you can increase the error tolerance  The higher the N the higher the error tolerance to still count two pixels as the same   align image stack should correct any offset so the compare command will actually have a chance of detecting same pixels

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Read the paper  Porikli  Fatih  Oncel Tuzel  and Peter Meer     Covariance Tracking Using Model Update Based on Means on Riemannian Manifolds      2006  IEEE Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition   I was successfully able to detect overlapping regions in images captured from adjacent webcams using the technique presented in this paper   My covariance matrix was composed of Sobel  canny and SUSAN aspect edge detection outputs  as well as the original greyscale pixels

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These are simply ideas I ve had thinking about the problem  never tried it but I like thinking about problems like this   Before you begin  Consider normalising the pictures  if one is a higher resolution than the other  consider the option that one of them is a compressed version of the other  therefore scaling the resolution down might provide more accurate results   Consider scanning various prospective areas of the image that could represent zoomed portions of the image and various positions and rotations   It starts getting tricky if one of the images are a skewed version of another  these are the sort of limitations you should identify and compromise on   Matlab is an excellent tool for testing and evaluating images   Testing the algorithms  You should test  at the minimum  a large human analysed set of test data where matches are known beforehand   If for example in your test data you have 1 000 images where 5  of them match  you now have a reasonably reliable benchmark   An algorithm that finds 10  positives is not as good as one that finds 4  of positives in our test data   However  one algorithm may find all the matches  but also have a large 20  false positive rate  so there are several ways to rate your algorithms   The test data should attempt to be designed to cover as many types of dynamics as possible that you would expect to find in the real world   It is important to note that each algorithm to be useful must perform better than random guessing  otherwise it is useless to us   You can then apply your software into the real world in a controlled way and start to analyse the results it produces   This is the sort of software project which can go on for infinitum  there are always tweaks and improvements you can make  it is important to bear that in mind when designing it as it is easy to fall into the trap of the never ending project   Colour Buckets  With two pictures  scan each pixel and count the colours   For example you might have the  buckets    white red blue green black    Obviously you would have a higher resolution of counters    Every time you find a  red  pixel  you increment the red counter   Each bucket can be representative of spectrum of colours  the higher resolution the more accurate but you should experiment with an acceptable difference rate   Once you have your totals  compare it to the totals for a second image   You might find that each image has a fairly unique footprint  enough to identify matches   Edge detection  How about using Edge Detection    source  wikimedia org     With two similar pictures edge detection should provide you with a usable and fairly reliable unique footprint   Take both pictures  and apply edge detection   Maybe measure the average thickness of the edges and then calculate the probability the image could be scaled  and rescale if necessary   Below is an example of an applied Gabor Filter  a type of edge detection  in various rotations     Compare the pictures pixel for pixel  count the matches and the non matches   If they are within a certain threshold of error  you have a match   Otherwise  you could try reducing the resolution up to a certain point and see if the probability of a match improves     Regions of Interest  Some images may have distinctive segments regions of interest   These regions probably contrast highly with the rest of the image  and are a good item to search for in your other images to find matches   Take this image for example     source  meetthegimp org     The construction worker in blue is a region of interest and can be used as a search object   There are probably several ways you could extract properties data from this region of interest and use them to search your data set   If you have more than 2 regions of interest  you can measure the distances between them   Take this simplified example     source  per2000 eu     We have 3 clear regions of interest   The distance between region 1 and 2 may be 200 pixels  between 1 and 3 400 pixels  and 2 and 3 200 pixels   Search other images for similar regions of interest  normalise the distance values and see if you have potential matches   This technique could work well for rotated and scaled images   The more regions of interest you have  the probability of a match increases as each distance measurement matches   It is important to think about the context of your data set   If for example your data set is modern art  then regions of interest would work quite well  as regions of interest were probably designed to be a fundamental part of the final image   If however you are dealing with images of construction sites  regions of interest may be interpreted by the illegal copier as ugly and may be cropped edited out liberally   Keep in mind common features of your dataset  and attempt to exploit that knowledge   Morphing  Morphing two images is the process of turning one image into the other through a set of steps     Note  this is different to fading one image into another   There are many software packages that can morph images   It s traditionaly used as a transitional effect  two images don t morph into something halfway usually  one extreme morphs into the other extreme as the final result   Why could this be useful   Dependant on the morphing algorithm you use  there may be a relationship between similarity of images  and some parameters of the morphing algorithm   In a grossly over simplified example  one algorithm might execute faster when there are less changes to be made   We then know there is a higher probability that these two images share properties with each other   This technique could work well for rotated  distorted  skewed  zoomed  all types of copied images   Again this is just an idea I have had  it s not based on any researched academia as far as I am aware  I haven t look hard though   so it may be a lot of work for you with limited no results   Zipping  Ow s answer in this question is excellent  I remember reading about these sort of techniques studying AI  It is quite effective at comparing corpus lexicons   One interesting optimisation when comparing corpuses is that you can remove words considered to be too common  for example  The    A    And  etc   These words dilute our result  we want to work out how different the two corpus are so these can be removed before processing   Perhaps there are similar common signals in images that could be stripped before compression   It might be worth looking into   Compression ratio is a very quick and reasonably effective way of determining how similar two sets of data are   Reading up about how compression works will give you a good idea why this could be so effective   For a fast to release algorithm this would probably be a good starting point   Transparency  Again I am unsure how transparency data is stored for certain image types  gif png etc  but this will be extractable and would serve as an effective simplified cut out to compare with your data sets transparency   Inverting Signals  An image is just a signal   If you play a noise from a speaker  and you play the opposite noise in another speaker in perfect sync at the exact same volume  they cancel each other out     source  themotorreport com au     Invert on of the images  and add it onto your other image   Scale it loop positions repetitively until you find a resulting image where enough of the pixels are white  or black   I ll refer to it as a neutral canvas  to provide you with a positive match  or partial match   However  consider two images that are equal  except one of them has a brighten effect applied to it     source  mcburrz com     Inverting one of them  then adding it to the other will not result in a neutral canvas which is what we are aiming for   However  when comparing the pixels from both original images  we can definatly see a clear relationship between the two   I haven t studied colour for some years now  and am unsure if the colour spectrum is on a linear scale  but if you determined the average factor of colour difference between both pictures  you can use this value to normalise the data before processing with this technique   Tree Data structures  At first these don t seem to fit for the problem  but I think they could work   You could think about extracting certain properties of an image  for example colour bins  and generate a huffman tree or similar data structure   You might be able to compare two trees for similarity   This wouldn t work well for photographic data for example with a large spectrum of colour  but cartoons or other reduced colour set images this might work   This probably wouldn t work  but it s an idea   The trie datastructure is great at storing lexicons  for example a dictionarty   It s a prefix tree   Perhaps it s possible to build an image equivalent of a lexicon   again I can only think of colours  to construct a trie   If you reduced say a 300x300 image into 5x5 squares  then decompose each 5x5 square into a sequence of colours you could construct a trie from the resulting data   If a 2x2 square contains   FFFFFF 000000 FDFD44 FFFFFF   We have a fairly unique trie code that extends 24 levels  increasing decreasing the levels  IE reducing increasing the size of our sub square  may yield more accurate results   Comparing trie trees should be reasonably easy  and could possible provide effective results    More ideas  I stumbled accross an interesting paper breif about classification of satellite imagery  it outlines      Texture measures considered are  cooccurrence matrices  gray-level differences  texture-tone analysis  features derived from the Fourier spectrum  and Gabor filters  Some Fourier features and some Gabor filters were found to be good choices  in particular when a single frequency band was used for classification    It may be worth investigating those measurements in more detail  although some of them may not be relevant to your data set   Other things to consider  There are probably a lot of papers on this sort of thing  so reading some of them should help although they can be very technical   It is an extremely difficult area in computing  with many fruitless hours of work spent by many people attempting to do similar things   Keeping it simple and building upon those ideas would be the best way to go   It should be a reasonably difficult challenge to create an algorithm with a better than random match rate  and to start improving on that really does start to get quite hard to achieve   Each method would probably need to be tested and tweaked thoroughly  if you have any information about the type of picture you will be checking as well  this would be useful   For example advertisements  many of them would have text in them  so doing text recognition would be an easy and probably very reliable way of finding matches especially when combined with other solutions   As mentioned earlier  attempt to exploit common properties of your data set   Combining alternative measurements and techniques each that can have a weighted vote  dependant on their effectiveness  would be one way you could create a system that generates more accurate results   If employing multiple algorithms  as mentioned at the begining of this answer  one may find all the positives but have a false positive rate of 20   it would be of interest to study the properties strengths weaknesses of other algorithms as another algorithm may be effective in eliminating false positives returned from another   Be careful to not fall into attempting to complete the never ending project  good luck

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An idea    use keypoint detectors to find scale- and transform- invariant descriptors of some points in the image  e g  SIFT  SURF  GLOH  or LESH   try to align keypoints with similar descriptors from both images  like in panorama stitching   allow for some image transforms if necessary  e g  scale  amp  rotate  or elastic stretching   if many keypoints align well  exists such a transform  that keypoint alignment error is low  or transformation  energy  is low  etc    you likely have similar images    Step 2 is not trivial  In particular  you may need to use a smart algorithm to find the most similar keypoint on the other image  Point descriptors are usually very high-dimensional  like a hundred parameters   and there are many points to look through  kd-trees may be useful here  hash lookups don t work well   Variants    Detect edges or other features instead of points

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It is indeed much less simple than it seems  -   Nick s suggestion is a good one   To get started  keep in mind that any worthwhile comparison method will essentially work by converting the images into a different form -- a form which makes it easier to pick similar features out   Usually  this stuff doesn t make for very light reading        One of the simplest examples I can think of is simply using the color space of each image   If two images have highly similar color distributions  then you can be reasonably sure that they show the same thing   At least  you can have enough certainty to flag it  or do more testing   Comparing images in color space will also resist things such as rotation  scaling  and some cropping   It won t  of course  resist heavy modification of the image or heavy recoloring  and even a simple hue shift will be somewhat tricky    http   en wikipedia org wiki RGB color space http   upvector com index php section tutorials amp subsection tutorials colorspace    Another example involves something called the Hough Transform   This transform essentially decomposes an image into a set of lines   You can then take some of the  strongest  lines in each image and see if they line up   You can do some extra work to try and compensate for rotation and scaling too -- and in this case  since comparing a few lines is MUCH less computational work than doing the same to entire images -- it won t be so bad   http   homepages inf ed ac uk amos hough html http   rkb home cern ch rkb AN16pp node122 html http   en wikipedia org wiki Hough transform

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If you re willing to consider a different approach altogether to detecting illegal copies of your images  you could consider watermarking   from 1 4         inserts copyright information into the digital object without the loss of quality  Whenever the copyright of a digital object is in question  this information is extracted to identify the rightful owner  It is also possible to encode the identity of the original buyer along with the identity of the copyright holder  which allows tracing of any unauthorized copies    While it s also a complex field  there are techniques that allow the watermark information to persist through gross image alteration   from 1 9          any signal transform of reasonable strength cannot remove the watermark  Hence a pirate willing to remove the watermark will not succeed unless they debase the document too much to be of commercial interest    of course  the faq calls implementing this approach      very challenging  but if you succeed with it  you get a high confidence of whether the image is a copy or not  rather than a percentage likelihood

[algorithm] Algorithm to compare two images

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